tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-34608179327476726802024-03-13T09:27:53.287-07:00Lit Craze!mhemahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17353140103300997311noreply@blogger.comBlogger133125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3460817932747672680.post-6875672025654133172013-02-03T17:10:00.002-08:002013-02-03T17:10:28.595-08:00Critical Essays<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 1;">
<b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-MY; mso-font-kerning: 18.0pt;">The Natural and the Artificial in <i>As You Like It</i></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Shakespeare's themes are often
expressed in terms of oppositions, such as the conflicting values associated
with fair and foul in <i>Macbeth. As You Like It </i>is no exception. Running
throughout <i>As You Like It </i>is a tension of antithesis between the natural
(that which is free, spontaneous, and wholesome) and the artificial (that which
is constrained, calculated, and unnatural). The clash between these two ways of
life is seen on several levels: (1) social: in the values associated with
civilized society (the court or a great country estate) compared with the value
of simple living (the open pastures and the forest encampment); (2) familial:
in the strife that sets brother against brother and parent against child; and
(3) personal: in the contrast between courtships that are based upon genuine
emotion (Orlando and Rosalind) and those that are based on formal conventions
(Silvius and Phebe). These various levels are not kept distinct in the play,
however, and disorder in one area is likely to parallel disorder in another.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="litnotetext">
<span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The first scene of the play introduces us to organized life on a
country estate. Here the close ties that should unite brothers have been
perverted. The unnaturalness of the situation is made clear in Orlando's
opening speech. He has been kept from his modest patrimony, his gentle birth
has been undermined, and he speaks of "mutiny" and
"servitude." Oliver's brutal treatment of the faithful servant Adam,
whom he addresses as an "old dog," shows that the disorder affects
other members of the household as well. In the same scene we learn of an
earlier, parallel perversion of normal family life, but here the roles are
reversed, with the young men's father, a <i>younger </i>brother abusing his <i>older
</i>brother. The wrestler, Charles, reports that "the old Duke is banished
by his younger brother, the new Duke." On the social level, the corruption
of the great estate is matched by the debasement of court life.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext">
<span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">But in opposition to these sinister currents, we witness a strong
element of harmony between relations: Celia loves her cousin Rosalind so much
that she will follow her into exile or else stay behind with her and die. And
we learn too of a harmonious social order established by the banished Duke
Senior and his "merry men" in the Forest of Arden. Thus the
opposition between court and country, the natural and the artificial, is
established at the outset of the play.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext">
<span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">In Act I, Scene 2, the corruptions of court life are overtly
shown; there is little subtlety here. For example, the clown speaks jestingly
of a knight without honor who has nevertheless prospered under Frederick, the
reigning duke. Not long afterwards, Orlando, who has just won the wrestling
match, is denied the honor due him for his triumph because his father, whom
"the world esteem'd . . . honourable," was the usurper's enemy. The
natural values subverted in the earlier scenes find glowing representation in
Act II, Scene 1 — that is, "painted pomp," "the envious
court," and "public haunt" give way to the uncomplicated rewards
of a life close to trees and running brooks. Here, the banished Duke Senior and
his "co-mates and brothers in exile" find their existence
"sweet." But to achieve full contentment they have had to adjust
themselves to the natural hardships of their lot — "the icy fang / And
churlish chiding of the winter's wind."</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext">
<span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The pattern of accommodation is one that the various fugitives in
the Forest of Arden go through; to them, the forest at first appears wild
rather than green, and threatening rather than hospitable. Rosalind complains
that her spirits are weary; Celia is too exhausted to continue; Touchstone
frankly declares, "When I was at home, I was in a better place."
Orlando and Adam almost starve, and Orlando speaks of the "uncouth [rough]
forest," "the bleak air," and "this desert." Oliver
becomes a "wretched ragged man" threatened by savage beasts.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext">
<span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">But all of these characters eventually make their peace with the
forest, and even the tyrant, Duke Frederick, is converted when he comes
"to the skirts of this wild." For Orlando, the reconciliation is
effected when he, along with Adam, joins Duke Senior's feast. The grand
movement of the play, then, is from organized society to the country, from
constraint to freedom, and from hardship to joy. "Now go we in
content," Celia says on the eve of her exile, "to liberty, and not to
banishment."</span></div>
<h1>
<span class="subheader-h2"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">As You Like It</span></span><span class="literature-header"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span></span><span class="subheader-author"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">By William Shakespeare</span></span><span class="literature-header"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span></span><span class="subheader-h3"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Critical Essay</span></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> <span class="subheader-h3">The
Natural and the Artificial in <i>As You Like It</i> </span></span></h1>
<div class="litnotetext">
<span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Shakespeare's themes are often expressed in terms of oppositions,
such as the conflicting values associated with fair and foul in <i>Macbeth. As
You Like It </i>is no exception. Running throughout <i>As You Like It </i>is a
tension of antithesis between the natural (that which is free, spontaneous, and
wholesome) and the artificial (that which is constrained, calculated, and
unnatural). The clash between these two ways of life is seen on several levels:
(1) social: in the values associated with civilized society (the court or a
great country estate) compared with the value of simple living (the open
pastures and the forest encampment); (2) familial: in the strife that sets
brother against brother and parent against child; and (3) personal: in the
contrast between courtships that are based upon genuine emotion (Orlando and
Rosalind) and those that are based on formal conventions (Silvius and Phebe).
These various levels are not kept distinct in the play, however, and disorder
in one area is likely to parallel disorder in another.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext">
<span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The first scene of the play introduces us to organized life on a
country estate. Here the close ties that should unite brothers have been
perverted. The unnaturalness of the situation is made clear in Orlando's
opening speech. He has been kept from his modest patrimony, his gentle birth
has been undermined, and he speaks of "mutiny" and
"servitude." Oliver's brutal treatment of the faithful servant Adam,
whom he addresses as an "old dog," shows that the disorder affects
other members of the household as well. In the same scene we learn of an
earlier, parallel perversion of normal family life, but here the roles are
reversed, with the young men's father, a <i>younger </i>brother abusing his <i>older
</i>brother. The wrestler, Charles, reports that "the old Duke is banished
by his younger brother, the new Duke." On the social level, the corruption
of the great estate is matched by the debasement of court life.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext">
<span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">But in opposition to these sinister currents, we witness a strong
element of harmony between relations: Celia loves her cousin Rosalind so much
that she will follow her into exile or else stay behind with her and die. And
we learn too of a harmonious social order established by the banished Duke
Senior and his "merry men" in the Forest of Arden. Thus the opposition
between court and country, the natural and the artificial, is established at
the outset of the play.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext">
<span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">In Act I, Scene 2, the corruptions of court life are overtly
shown; there is little subtlety here. For example, the clown speaks jestingly
of a knight without honor who has nevertheless prospered under Frederick, the
reigning duke. Not long afterwards, Orlando, who has just won the wrestling
match, is denied the honor due him for his triumph because his father, whom
"the world esteem'd . . . honourable," was the usurper's enemy. The
natural values subverted in the earlier scenes find glowing representation in
Act II, Scene 1 — that is, "painted pomp," "the envious
court," and "public haunt" give way to the uncomplicated rewards
of a life close to trees and running brooks. Here, the banished Duke Senior and
his "co-mates and brothers in exile" find their existence
"sweet." But to achieve full contentment they have had to adjust
themselves to the natural hardships of their lot — "the icy fang / And
churlish chiding of the winter's wind."</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext">
<span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The pattern of accommodation is one that the various fugitives in
the Forest of Arden go through; to them, the forest at first appears wild
rather than green, and threatening rather than hospitable. Rosalind complains
that her spirits are weary; Celia is too exhausted to continue; Touchstone
frankly declares, "When I was at home, I was in a better place."
Orlando and Adam almost starve, and Orlando speaks of the "uncouth [rough]
forest," "the bleak air," and "this desert." Oliver
becomes a "wretched ragged man" threatened by savage beasts.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext">
<span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">But all of these characters eventually make their peace with the
forest, and even the tyrant, Duke Frederick, is converted when he comes
"to the skirts of this wild." For Orlando, the reconciliation is
effected when he, along with Adam, joins Duke Senior's feast. The grand
movement of the play, then, is from organized society to the country, from
constraint to freedom, and from hardship to joy. "Now go we in
content," Celia says on the eve of her exile, "to liberty, and not to
banishment."</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext">
<span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Shakespeare's Forest of Arden furnishes the setting against which
most of the action unfolds, but it serves as much more than a mere backdrop.
The greenwood assumes symbolic stature. First of all, it is an "idyllic
forest." The words used by Charles to describe Duke Senior's life in the
forest suggest an idyllic existence, and in the famous pastoral romances of
Shakespeare's day, a world is created in which shepherds and shepherdesses
sing, pipe tunes, and make love while their flocks graze carelessly in green
valleys bright with the sunshine of eternal summer. This golden world, needless
to say, has little relation to the actualities of country living in any age,
yet it is the artist's fulfillment of the universal longing to flee burdensome
realities and find quietude and peace. In Shakespeare's time, no less than in
ours, people felt the need for just such an escape. This idyllic concept of
Arden is introduced, as was noted, by the rumor reported by Charles in the
first scene, and to this Forest of Arden (a name that has since become
synonymous with a forest utopia) belong such creatures as Silvius and Phebe,
whose names and behavior link them to later Acadian literature. These
characters are absorbed entirely in the sighing disquietudes of love, as only
the shepherds and shepherdesses of romance can afford to do.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext">
<span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The greenwood of Arden is also, of course, symbolic of an
"actual forest." Shakespeare's Forest of Arden is subject to the
changes wrought by the seasons, and even the stoic Duke Senior admits finally
that he and his company have suffered "shrewd days and nights."</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext">
<span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Furthermore, the presence of Touchstone and Jaques in the forest
provides what one critic has called "counterstatements" to the theme
of rural contentment. To Jaques, the exchange of civilized comfort for country
hardships is symptomatic of human stubbornness, as his contemptuous parody of
"under the greenwood tree" makes evident (II.v.52-59). Touchstone, on
the other hand, is an example of Shakespeare's sense of irony about pastoral
joys, for he plays the role of a discontented exile from the court. Under the
guise of apparent nonsense in his reply to Corin's query about how he likes the
shepherd's life (III.ii.12-22), Touchstone mocks the contradictory nature of
the desires ideally resolved by pastoral life — that is, to be at the same time
at court and in the fields and to enjoy both the advantages of rank, in
addition to the advantages of the classless estate of Arden. This sort of humor
goes to the heart of the pastoral convention and shows how very clearly
Shakespeare understood it and could use it to its best, humorous advantage.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext">
<span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The realities of country living are squarely faced in the
characters of Audrey, who is no beauteous damsel; William, who is no poetical
swain; and Corin, who is a simple "true labourer" in the pastures. If
Silvius and Phebe find their places in Shakespeare's complex Arden, their
romancing is presented as frankly <i>artificial, </i>in contrast with both the
elemental, biological basis of Touchstone's pursuit of Audrey and the
profoundly felt love experienced by Rosalind and Orlando. Thus, Silvius and
Phebe, pastoral stereotypes, provide another instance of the opposition between
the natural and the unnatural, which is always a dominant thematic concern of
the play.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</div>
mhemahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17353140103300997311noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3460817932747672680.post-73789281497176564892013-02-03T17:06:00.001-08:002013-02-03T17:06:58.529-08:00A Shakespearean Timeline<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: black; font-size: 36.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Proxima Nova";"></span></b></div>
<div class="Default">
<br /></div>
<div class="Default">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">1558 Elizabeth I crowned. </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">1564 William Shakespeare
born. </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<br /></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">1572
Actors not under the protection of a patron declared rogues and vagabonds. </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 3.9pt;">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">1576
“The Theatre,” the first public playhouse in London, opens. </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<br /></div>
<div class="Default">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">1577 “The Curtain,” London’s
second playhouse, opens. </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">1578 James VI (later James I
of England) takes over government of Scotland. </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<br /></div>
<div class="Default">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">1579 Publication of North’s
English translation of Plutarch’s Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans. </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">1580 Francis Drake returns
in triumph form his voyage around the world; travelling players perform at
Stratford. </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<br /></div>
<div class="Default">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">1582 Shakespeare marries
Anne Hathaway; Susanna is born six months later and the twins Hamnet and Judith
in 1585. </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">1587 “The Rose” theatre
opens in London. Mary Queen of Scots is executed. </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<br /></div>
<div class="Default">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">1588 Spanish Armada
defeated. </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">1589 Shakespeare finds work
as an actor in London; he lives apart from his wife for 21 years. </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<br /></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">1590-1591
The Two Gentlemen of Verona, The Taming of the Shrew. </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">1591
2 Henry VI, 3 Henry VI. </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<br /></div>
<div class="Default">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">1592 Thousands die of plague
in London; theatres closed. 1 Henry VI, Titus Andronicus, Richard III. </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">1593
The Comedy of Errors. </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">1594
Shakespeare becomes a shareholder of his theatre company, the Lord
Chamberlain’s Men. </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">1594
Love’s Labour’s Lost. </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">1595 Richard
II, Romeo and Juliet, A Midsummer Night’s Dream. </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">1596
Shakespeare’s son, Hamnet, dies. </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">1596-1597
King John, The Merchant of Venice, 1 Henry IV. </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">1597-1598
The Merry Wives of Windsor, 2 Henry IV, Much Ado About Nothing. </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">1598
“The Globe” theatre built. </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;">1598-1599
Henry V, Julius Caesar.</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -76.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -76.0pt;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings;">«</span><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Proxima Nova","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Proxima Nova";">1599-1600 As You Like It. </span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Proxima Nova","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Proxima Nova";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Proxima Nova","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Proxima Nova";">1600-1601 Hamlet, Twelfth
Night. </span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Proxima Nova","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Proxima Nova";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Proxima Nova","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Proxima Nova";">1601 Shakespeare’s patron
arrested for treason following the Essex rebellion; he is later pardoned. </span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Proxima Nova","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Proxima Nova";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Proxima Nova","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Proxima Nova";">1602 Troilus and Cressida. </span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Proxima Nova","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Proxima Nova";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Proxima Nova","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Proxima Nova";">1603 Queen Elizabeth dies and
is succeeded by James I; Shakespeare’s theatre company becomes the King’s Men. </span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Proxima Nova","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Proxima Nova";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Proxima Nova","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Proxima Nova";">1603 Measure for Measure,
Othello. </span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Proxima Nova","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Proxima Nova";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Proxima Nova","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Proxima Nova";">1604 Work begins on the King
James Bible. </span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Proxima Nova","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Proxima Nova";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Proxima Nova","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Proxima Nova";">1604-1605 All’s Well That Ends
Well, Timon of Athens, King Lear (Q) </span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Proxima Nova","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Proxima Nova";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Proxima Nova","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Proxima Nova";">1606 Macbeth, Antony and
Cleopatra. </span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Proxima Nova","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Proxima Nova";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Proxima Nova","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Proxima Nova";">1607 Pericles. </span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Proxima Nova","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Proxima Nova";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Proxima Nova","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Proxima Nova";">1608 Coriolanus. </span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Proxima Nova","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Proxima Nova";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Proxima Nova","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Proxima Nova";">1609 The Winter’s Tale. </span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Proxima Nova","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Proxima Nova";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Proxima Nova","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Proxima Nova";">1610 King Lear (F), Cymbeline.</span></b></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">1610
Shakespeare retires to Stratford-upon-Avon. </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">1611
The Tempest. </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">1611
King James Bible published. </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">1613
Henry VIII (All Is True), The Two Noble Kinsmen. </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">1613
“The Globe” theatre burns down. </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">1616
Shakespeare dies in Stratford-upon-Avon. </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">1623
The first folio of Shakespeare’s collected plays is published. </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 67.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -67.0pt;">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">*
Some dates are approximate. </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
taken from some website I can't remember .</div>
</div>
mhemahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17353140103300997311noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3460817932747672680.post-81779744906920538172013-01-16T20:35:00.003-08:002013-01-16T20:35:24.036-08:00Irony in Sense and Sensibility<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Austen uses irony as a means of moral and social satire. Her sentences,
while usually simple and direct, contain within them the basic
contradictions which reveal profound insights into character and theme.
This is most obvious in her blunt character sketches. John Dashwood "was
not an ill-disposed young man, unless to be rather coldhearted, and
rather selfish, is to be ill-disposed." Note that in the first half of
the sentence, she seems to be viewing his character amiably. Suddenly
she changes direction, and the general impression we receive about John
is far more bitingly negative than a mere statement of disapproval. Thus
she contains in her statement all the elements of disapproval without
directly stating that he was ill-disposed.<br />
<br />
Her irony ranges from the gentle to the severe. When she speaks about
Marianne, she says, "She was generous, amiable, interesting: she was
everything but prudent." Austen weights the first half with pleasing
commentary and gently undercuts it in the second. Compare this with her
biting description of Mrs. Ferrars: "She was not a woman of many words;
for, unlike people in general, she proportioned them to the number of
her ideas." Austen begins innocently enough, but the conclusion of that
sentence bitterly reveals to us the impression she wishes us to have.
Reflection is necessary, for we must see the sentence as a whole. She
seems to be contradicting herself, but this is not so. We had just taken
it for granted that she would finish the sentence the way we expected
it to be finished. Our expectations built in the first part of the
sentence are disappointed. But the change in tone, though seemingly
sudden, is a natural conclusion to the author's own train of thought.
She knew that Mrs. Ferrars had nothing to say, but in the order,
meticulously constructed, in which she reveals this information, lies
her genius. The necessary reflection, subsequent surprise, and
devastating insight create an effect which is much more persuasive than
direct statement could be. <br />
<br />
http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/literature/sense-and-sensibility/critical-essays/irony.html </div>
mhemahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17353140103300997311noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3460817932747672680.post-13249430551670629662013-01-16T20:33:00.000-08:002013-01-16T20:35:33.265-08:00Background of Sense and Sensibility<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<img alt="" class="rg_hi uh_hi" data-height="194" data-width="259" height="194" id="rg_hi" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSa_8wqyZ5syBPICNm5iqhoHMVUlfD6--ZhW1C_PxjS5ZERx26T6A" style="height: 194px; width: 259px;" width="259" /> <br />
<br />
Although Jane Austen had lived in towns like Bath and Southampton and
had visited London, she never gives her novels an urban setting. In <i>Sense and Sensibility, </i>the
action moves from one great country house to another, the main action
taking place in Norland Park, Barton Park, and Cleveland. The Dashwood
sisters spend a season in London; they attend balls and dances, and
visit a fashionable jeweler's shop. But the author gives few
characteristic details about the city itself.<br />
<br />
<div class="litNoteText">
Landscapes are only briefly described, though
there are references to grounds adorned with mock Grecian temples, and
Edward and Elinor plan a "sweep," an approach to their house which will
make the most of their limited grounds. </div>
<div class="litNoteText">
<br /></div>
<div class="litNoteText">
All the characters lead a life of leisure. The
men do little but hunt and shoot. The women entertain their friends,
sing or play an instrument, play cards, and work at painting screens,
making filigree baskets, and doing carpet work. Much time is spent in
gossip, chatter, and the reading of poetry and romances.</div>
<div class="litNoteText">
<br /></div>
<div class="litNoteText">
Austen writes about a limited universe, her own universe, which is
comprised of upper-middle-class Tory gentry. Economic security is
essential in order to maintain this leisurely existence. According to
the English laws of primogeniture, the first-born son inherits the
family estate, which includes all but what money is bequeathed directly
to the rest of the family. This is usually enough to resolve his
difficulties, if the estate is a good one. But if the son isn't old
enough to inherit his birthright when the father dies, the estate is
usually left to the mother and, in the case of Mrs. Ferrars, with "no
strings attached." When she leaves the estate to Robert, she abolishes
the natural order of things by ignoring the laws of primogeniture. She
is thus, in many ways, an unnatural mother. The second and subsequent
sons, having no estate, must make their way in the world with only what
is bequeathed them in money. If they are fortunate, they marry a wealthy
woman with an estate. But, more frequently, their choices are limited
to the clergy or the army. If the clergy, they again must apply to luck,
which often amounts to influence, to find someone to give or sell them a
"living," which would provide them with a house on an estate and the
money gained from the collection of tithes, or church taxes. If the
estate is a wealthy one, the "living" can assure them a comfortable
existence. This is not the case in Delaford, where Edward must rely on
his mother's beneficence to supplement his income. A man need not be
terribly spiritual in order to take a post in the clergy. The position
involves guiding the social and moral life of the community as much as,
if not more than, its spiritual one. </div>
<div class="litNoteText">
<br /></div>
<div class="litNoteText">
Were a man to decide on the army, he would again
need to use his influence, this time to find a good command, which he
then must buy. In eighteenth-century England, men didn't rise from the
ranks; all the officers were men of good family who had paid heavily for
their ranks. We see a detailed depiction of the military society of the
times in Austen's <i>Pride and Prejudice.</i></div>
<div class="litNoteText">
<br /></div>
<div class="contentAdWrapperBottom">
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<div class="litNoteText">
Women have similar economic problems, but not as
many resources. If they are rich, as is Miss Grey, they can literally
buy a husband — their dowry offering often being quite substantial. If,
like the Misses Dashwood, they have little dowry, their problems are
great. Women like Elinor and Marianne have been brought up in a certain
manner. They are educated and cultured but essentially useless. They
have little money to offer a man, cannot work, and yet demand a man of
their own level. They must find a man who doesn't need a dowry, like
Colonel Brandon, or get used to living on less, like Elinor, or like
Austen herself, remain single and hope for the goodness of their more
wealthy friends to include them to some degree in the social life of the
community.</div>
<div class="litNoteText">
<br /></div>
<div class="litNoteText">
The Misses Steele are of a lower social order, a fact which is brought
out by their poor grammar and lack of real elegance. However, in this
materialistic society, filled with the newly rich middle class, social
mobility is much more feasible than it had been in seventeenth-century
England. </div>
<br />
http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/literature/sense-and-sensibility/critical-essays/background-of.html </div>
mhemahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17353140103300997311noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3460817932747672680.post-22189680373205235602013-01-16T20:28:00.002-08:002013-01-16T20:28:51.305-08:00Style in Sense and Sensibility<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="literature-h1" style="text-align: left;">
<br />
<img alt="" class="rg_hi uh_hi" data-height="259" data-width="195" height="259" id="rg_hi" src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQY3X5rRsojrKJQA_K4ds1dvk_VMYdgLbfFWsvtBfaPsUV23Ckg" style="height: 259px; width: 195px;" width="195" /><span class="subheader-h3"><i> Though Austen's style was highly individual, it is based on her close
study of the eighteenth-century writers, whose simplicity, accuracy, and
precision she admired and imitated. Austen picked up the technique,
popularized by Fielding, of the omniscient narrator. But her particular
style is more objective. While she definitely has an ironic point of
view, she allows her characters freedom within this, for her
implications are subtle, and in many cases reserved. A good example of
this is shown in the development of the character of Mrs. Jennings. When
we first meet her, we are told what to think of her: "Mrs. Jennings was
a widow, with an ample jointure. She had only two daughters, both of
whom she had lived to see respectably married, and she had now therefore
nothing to do but to marry all the rest of the world." But for the rest
of the novel the author leaves us alone, and we discover by viewing
Mrs. Jennings' actions that despite her obvious faults, she is really
quite an amiable character. This lack of intrusion adds a sense of
reality to the characters, for they are allowed to develop before our
eyes. Character is vividly conveyed through direct speech. Charlotte
Palmer's foolishness, Robert Ferrars' complacence and vanity, Mrs.
Jennings' blunt good humor and common sense, and Anne Steele's vulgarity
and lack of education are revealed in the way they express themselves. </i></span></div>
<div class="literature-h1" style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div class="litNoteText" style="text-align: left;">
Despite the constant satire, there is a sense of
psychological immediacy which increases the verisimilitude. Austen uses
the consciousness of Elinor as the means through which to narrate her
story. As Elinor is rarely treated ironically, her feelings and
observations have a seriousness which transcends the ironic. Colonel
Brandon, too, is hardly treated comically, and even Marianne, although
often seen ironically, is finally taken seriously.</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<div class="litNoteText" style="text-align: left;">
Contrast is used with line effect. Elinor's sense
is contrasted with her sister's sensibility. Edward's loyalty to Lucy
contrasts with Willoughby's betrayal of Marianne. Mrs. Jennings' good
humor is in strong contrast to Mrs. Ferrars' sourness.</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<div class="litNoteText" style="text-align: left;">
Every page of the novel reflects Austen's own
quiet temperament, her good sense, and her humor. Though she can be
satirical or ironic on either a small or a grand scale, she is never
malicious, and her humor never exceeds the bounds of good taste and
credibility.</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<div class="litNoteText" style="text-align: left;">
It has been said that in Austen's novels "nothing
ever happens." That is because she recognized her own limitations and
kept within them. "What should I do with your strong, vigorous sketches,
full of variety and glow?" she asked her nephew, a writer. "How could I
possibly join them on to the little bits (two inches wide) of ivory on
which I work with so fine a brush as produces little effect after much
labor?"</div>
<div class="litNoteText" style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div class="litNoteText" style="text-align: left;">
In her own style, she is superb. The events of her story may not be
startling, but she makes ordinary happenings as interesting, and
sometimes as dramatic, as the most exciting adventure story or romance.
Much of the perfection of her style comes from the infinite care and
patience with which she polishes her work. </div>
<div class="litNoteText" style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div class="litNoteText" style="text-align: left;">
http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/literature/sense-and-sensibility/critical-essays/style.html </div>
</div>
mhemahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17353140103300997311noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3460817932747672680.post-63623495233923856012013-01-14T00:25:00.000-08:002013-01-16T20:29:01.024-08:00Critical Reception - Sense & Sensibility<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Much critical commentary on <i>Sense and Sensibility</i> deals
with the terms referred to in the title—"sense" versus "sensibility."
Some critics have concluded that Austen advocated a woman's possessing
"sense," not "sensibility," while others have argued that Austen
advocated possessing neither one nor the other, but a balance between
the two. It is not surprising that a good deal of criticism on the novel
revolved around comparisons of one type or another which harken back to
the one Austen presents to readers in the title. Critics compare Elinor
and Marianne, Willoughby and Edward Ferrars, and lesser characters such
as Fanny Dashwood and Lucy Steele. One critic aligns the Dashwood
sisters and Willoughby against the rest of the novel's characters.
Commenting on other comparisons or "pairings," other critics note that
Austen negotiates between actual and hypothetical language; private
desire and public voice; epistolary and objective narration.<br />
In addition, several critics have commented on the novel's position
within feminist and gender studies. One critic finds the novel the most
antifeminist of all Austen's books in its consideration of female
authority and power, while another posits that feminist criticism is
vital to evaluating <i>Sense and Sensibility</i> for the way in which it
offers new ways of valuing the female experience. Yet another critic
argues that Austen has created, through the character of Elinor, a
female intellectual, signaling Austen's attempt to reshape ideas about
gender through her novel.<br />
<div id="source-link">
<i>Source: </i>Nineteenth-Century Literary Criticism<i>, ©1999 Gale Cengage. All Rights Reserved.</i> <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3460817932747672680">Full copyright</a>.</div>
<div id="source-link">
http://www.enotes.com/sense-sensibility-essays/sense-and-sensibility </div>
</div>
mhemahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17353140103300997311noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3460817932747672680.post-35608735512907692392013-01-14T00:24:00.000-08:002013-01-14T00:24:13.836-08:00Critical Essays Critical Reception of Sense and Sensibility<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="litNoteText">
The nineteenth century contained a hotbed of
critical views about the writer. Consistently inconsistent, critics,
ranging from the fiery romantics to the subtle Victorians, could not
agree.</div>
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</span>
<div class="litNoteText">
Jane Austen's warmest admirers have always been
men. Archbishop Whately and Macaulay both compared her with Shakespeare.
Coleridge, Whewell, Tennyson, Sidney Smith, Andrew Bradley all spoke
out in her favor.</div>
<div class="litNoteText">
Sir Walter Scott, the great romantic, had this to
say: "That young lady has a talent for describing the involvements and
feelings and characters of ordinary life which is to me the most
wonderful I ever met with. The big bow-wow strain I can do myself like
any now going; but the exquisite touch which renders commonplace things
and characters interesting from the truth of the description and the
sentiments is denied me." Affirmative acclaims could also be heard from
Robert Southey, poet laureate and friend of the great romantics: "Her
novels are more true to nature, and have, for my sympathies, passages of
finer feeling than any others of this age." And of the Victorians,
George Henry Lewes, George Eliot's devoted friend, said: "In spite of
the sense of incongruity which besets us in the word <i>prose Shakespeare, </i>we
confess the greatness of Miss Austen; her marvelous dramatic power
seems, more than any thing in Scott, akin to the greatest quality in
Shakespeare."</div>
<div class="litNoteText">
<br /></div>
<div class="litNoteText">
But adverse criticism rang as loudly as did the favorable. Because they
did not rely on high-colored pictures of life, complicated plots, or
supernatural terrors, the novels of Jane Austen seemed tame and
commonplace to many readers of her time. Madame de Staël pronounced
Austen's novels "<i>vulgaires</i>" (commonplace), and Charlotte Bronte
said: "The passions are perfectly unknown to her. . . . Even to the
feelings she vouchsafes no more than an occasional graceful but distant
recognition — too frequent converse with them would ruffle the smooth
elegance of her progress. Her business is not half so much with the
human heart as with the human eyes, mouth, hands and feet. What sees
keenly, speaks aptly, moves flexibly, it suits her to study: but what
throbs fast and full, though hidden, what the blood rushes through, what
is the unseen seat of life and sentient target of death — this Miss
Austen ignores." Thomas Carlyle dismissed Austen's novels as mere "dish
washings," and Wordsworth "used to say that though he admitted that the
novels were an admirable copy of life, he could not be interested in
productions of that kind; unless the truth of nature were presented to
him clarified, as it were, by the light of the imagination, it had
scarce any attraction in his eyes" (quoted by Sara Coleridge). </div>
<div class="litNoteText">
<br /></div>
<div class="litNoteText">
http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/literature/sense-and-sensibility/critical-essays/critical-reception-of.html </div>
</div>
mhemahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17353140103300997311noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3460817932747672680.post-9804995913823809902012-12-06T01:16:00.000-08:002012-12-06T01:16:37.939-08:00Sense & Sensibility - Reflections<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<br />
<span dir="ltr">from: http://omero.humnet.unipi.it/matdid/778/powerpoint_S<b>and</b>S.<b>ppt </b></span></div>
mhemahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17353140103300997311noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3460817932747672680.post-41434039330813078482012-12-04T01:24:00.000-08:002012-12-04T01:24:18.521-08:00Sense & Sensibility -- context, theme, limitations<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="http://prezi.com/cgzqjbby535-/copy-of-sense-and-sensibility-by-jane-austen/" title="Copy of Sense and Sensibility by Jane Austen">Copy of Sense and Sensibility by Jane Austen</a> on <a href="http://prezi.com/">Prezi</a></div>
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</div>
mhemahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17353140103300997311noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3460817932747672680.post-50585891142078114392012-11-27T00:22:00.000-08:002012-11-27T00:23:04.722-08:00Jane Austen-- An Intro (Prezi)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<a href="http://prezi.com/n-6bb4ddtd0x/jan-austen/?auth_key=3316363949de0ef4f48586e8fb2fa9d90e9588a3&kw=view-n-6bb4ddtd0x&rc=ref-4437155"><object classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" height="400" id="prezi_4067a43fc6afceb47b3f2b7ac72a223c70332ba8" name="prezi_4067a43fc6afceb47b3f2b7ac72a223c70332ba8" width="550"><param name="movie" value="http://prezi.com/bin/preziloader.swf"/><param name="allowfullscreen" value="true"/><param name="allowFullScreenInteractive" value="true"/><param name="allowscriptaccess" value="always"/><param name="wmode" value="direct"/><param name="bgcolor" value="#ffffff"/><param name="flashvars" value="prezi_id=4067a43fc6afceb47b3f2b7ac72a223c70332ba8&lock_to_path=0&color=ffffff&autoplay=no&autohide_ctrls=0"/><embed id="preziEmbed_4067a43fc6afceb47b3f2b7ac72a223c70332ba8" name="preziEmbed_4067a43fc6afceb47b3f2b7ac72a223c70332ba8" src="http://prezi.com/bin/preziloader.swf" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" allowfullscreen="true" allowFullScreenInteractive="true" allowscriptaccess="always" width="550" height="400" bgcolor="#ffffff" flashvars="prezi_id=4067a43fc6afceb47b3f2b7ac72a223c70332ba8&lock_to_path=0&color=ffffff&autoplay=no&autohide_ctrls=0"></embed></object> </a></div>
mhemahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17353140103300997311noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3460817932747672680.post-49608798231074702272012-11-18T23:48:00.002-08:002012-11-18T23:48:51.069-08:00Sense & Sensibility Famous Quotes<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<iframe frameborder="0" height="401" scrolling="no" src="http://app.sliderocket.com:80/app/fullplayer.aspx?id=0EAE2644-2C19-25BD-9E43-3497B2869866" width="500"></iframe> </div>
mhemahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17353140103300997311noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3460817932747672680.post-54434037325860768272012-10-23T02:31:00.003-07:002012-10-23T02:31:59.169-07:00The dichotomy between "sense" and "sensibility"<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-MY;">The
dichotomy between "sense" and "sensibility" is one of the
lenses through which this novel is most commonly analyzed. The distinction is
most clearly symbolized by the psychological contrast between the novel's two
chief characters, Elinor and Marianne Dashwood. According to this
understanding, Elinor, the older sister, represents qualities of
"sense": reason, restraint, social responsibility, and a clear-headed
concern for the welfare of others. In contrast, Marianne, her younger sister,
represents qualities of "sensibility": emotion, spontaneity,
impulsiveness, and rapturous devotion. Whereas Elinor conceals her regard for
Edward Ferrars, Marianne openly and unashamedly proclaims her passion for John
Willoughby. Their different attitudes toward the men they love, and how to
express that love, reflect their opposite temperaments.</span></div>
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This dichotomy between "sense" and "sensibility"
has cultural and historical resonances as well. Austen wrote this novel around
the turn of the eighteenth century, on the cusp between two cultural movements:
Classicism and Romanticism. Elinor represents the characteristics associated
with eighteenth-century neo-classicism, including rationality, insight,
judgment, moderation, and balance. She never loses sight of propriety, economic
practicalities, and perspective, as when she reminds Marianne that their mother
would not be able to afford a pet horse or that it is indecorous for her to go
alone with Willoughby to Allenham. It was during the Classical period and its
accompanying cultural <a href="http://www.sparknotes.com/history/european/enlightenment/">Enlightenment</a>
that the novel first developed as a literary genre: thus, with the character of
Elinor, Austen gestures toward her predecessors and acknowledges the influence
of their legacy on her generation. In contrast, Marianne represents the
qualities associated with the emerging "cult of sensibility,"
embracing romance, imagination, idealism, excess, and a dedication to the
beauty of nature: Marianne weeps dramatically when her family must depart from
"dear, dear Norland" and willingly offers a lock of her hair to her
lover. Austen's characterization of Marianne reminds us that she was the
contemporary of Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Walter Scott, the luminaries of the
English Romantic literary scene. Austen's depiction of Elinor and Marianne thus
reflects the changing literary landscape that served as a backdrop for her life
as a writer.</div>
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However, this novel cannot simply be understood as a
straightforward study in contrast. Elinor, though representing sense, does not
lack passion, and Marianne, though representing sensibility, is not always foolish
and headstrong. Austen's antitheses do not represent epigrammatic conclusions
but a starting- point for dialogue. Although Austen is famous for satirizing
the "cult of sensibility," in this novel she seems to argue not for
the dismissal of sensibility but for the creation of a balance between reason
and passion. Fanny Dashwood's violent outbreak of feeling towards the end of
the novel reveals that too little feeling is as dangerous as too much. Both
Elinor and Marianne achieve happiness at the end of the novel, but they do so
only by learning from one another: together they discover how to feel and
express their sentiments fully while also retaining their dignity and
self-control. The novel's success is not a result of the triumph of sense over
sensibility or of their division; rather, we remember <i>Sense and Sensibility</i>
as a conjunction of terms that serve together as the compound subject of
Austen's novel.</div>
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<br /></div>
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adapted from spark notes </div>
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mhemahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17353140103300997311noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3460817932747672680.post-35373910110590711082012-10-23T02:28:00.000-07:002012-10-23T02:28:32.074-07:00Analysis by Chapter - Sense & Sensibility<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<br />
<br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Chapters 1-5</b><br />
The opening pages of <i>Sense and Sensibility</i> are concerned with the
laws of inheritance and succession that govern the fate of the Dashwood family
property. According to the laws of male primogeniture effective in the
mid-nineteenth century, estates went to the closest male descendant of the
original owner. Since Old Mr. Dashwood has no sons, his estate is bequeathed to
his nephew, Henry Dashwood. Henry, in turn, leaves the estate to his eldest
son, John. However, as Austen notes, Henry Dashwood's money was far more vital
to his daughters than to his son, because John was already provided for both by
his mother's fortune--which he inherited as eldest son--and by the money he
received by marrying his own wife. (In general, a man inherited all of his
wife's money upon marriage, though the wife usually entered into the marriage
with a "settlement," a legal document ensuring that some of her
property would revert to her or her children following her husband's death.) In
this case, the money that Mr. Henry Dashwood's late first wife brought to the
marriage was settled on their son John, and therefore could not be used to help
his second wife or his daughters by that second wife. Since Henry's second wife
and their three daughters could not inherit any of the money from that first
marriage, they are in much greater need of the money from Old Mr. Dashwood's
estate.<br />
The opening discussion of money and marriage immediately establishes the
important role that ordinary economic concerns will play in Austen's novel.
Unlike the authors of Gothic and sentimental novels fashionable in her day,
Austen refuses to romanticize; she recognizes that material realities constrain
love and marriage. Nonetheless, she allows some of this sentimentality to seep
into the novel, and the tension between reasonable economic concerns and overly
romantic dreaming will constitute an important theme in the novel.<br />
Indeed, this tension is already apparent in the characters of Elinor and
Marianne, between the older sister's "sense" and the younger sister's
"sensibility," the duality which the novel's title refers to. Elinor,
age nineteen, is described as having a "strength of understanding"
and "coolness of judgment", as well as the ability to govern and
control her feelings. She modestly states that she "greatly esteems"
Edward Ferrars, a remark typical of her rational, sensible attitude. In
contrast, her younger sister Marianne, who more closely resembles their mother,
is "everything but prudent." She longs for a man with taste, grace,
spirit, and fire in his eyes, and considers her sister cold-hearted in her calm
and tempered regard for Edward Ferrars. Their younger sister Margaret, age
thirteen, also shares Marianne's excessive romanticism. Elinor thus stands out
in her family as the only sensible and rational woman.<br />
The sensibility of Marianne and Mrs. Dashwood manifests itself in their
excessive mourning over the deaths of the two men, in contrast to Elinor's more
silent grief. Not only are they overcome by sadness at the loss of first Old
Mr. Dashwood and then Henry, but they then carry on dramatically about having
to leave Norland and move to the smaller cottage. Before departing, Marianne
wanders the grounds of Norland uttering a histrionic elegy: "Dear, dear
Norland... Oh! happy house... And you, ye well-known trees!" Elinor,
however, experiences a far more subdued depression--though she is leaving
behind not just her home but also a man she has grown to deeply care for and
admire.<br />
The early chapters also display the wry irony for which Austen is so famous
as a novelist. She is unsparingly critical of the characters she dislikes, but
conveys her criticism with a pointed subtlety, which makes it all the more
forceful. For example, in the opening chapter, Austen sketches the character of
John Dashwood in three masterful sentences, achieving a biting acerbity: the
author begins elliptically with a double negative, only slyly to refute it:
"He was not an ill-disposed young man, unless to be rather cold-hearted
and rather selfish is to be ill-disposed..." She then ends the paragraph
by explicitly skewering both John and his wife: "Mrs. John Dashwood was a
strong caricature of himself; more narrow-minded and selfish." Austen thus
relies on understatement and irony to reveal her feelings towards her more
disagreeable characters.<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Chapters 6-10</b></div>
Clearly evident in these chapters are Austen's satiric voice and her keen
understanding of human nature, particularly when she comments on the role of
Lady Middleton's son as a conversation piece between the Dashwoods and the
Middletons. She writes that:<br />
<div style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
Conversation... [was not lacking], for Sir John
was very chatty, and Lady Middleton had taken the wise precaution of bringing
with her their eldest child, a fine little boy about six years old; by which
means there was one subject always to be recurred to by the ladies in case of
extremity, for they had to enquire his name and age, admire his beauty, and ask
him questions which his mother answered for him... On every formal visit a
child ought to be of the party, by way of provision for discourse. In the
present case it took up ten minutes to determine whether the boy were most like
his father or mother, and in what particular he resembled either, for of course
every body differed, and every body was astonished at the opinion of the
others.</div>
Here, Austen's use of the overarching, gnomic statements establishes a
piercing irony. She writes that on every formal visit a child ought to be of
the party, but knows, of course, that no one really cares which parent a child
more closely resembles; Austen mocks all the ludicrous and rather irrelevant
conversations devoted to this question.<br />
Austen explains that Sir John tried to invite other guests to his home to
greet the Dashwoods, but it was moonlight so everyone was already engaged.
(Since moonlight made it easier to travel at night, social events were
frequently scheduled on days around a full moon.) During this busy social
period, Sir John was unable to invite any guests beyond his mother-in-law and
his good friend Brandon; this is another subtle way of telling the reader that
this family is not the most interesting or agreeable company.<br />
Austen's opinion of her characters nearly always coincides with that of her
heroine, Elinor Dashwood. Like the omniscient Austen, Elinor can appreciate the
nobility of Colonel Brandon's gravity and reserve. Unlike Marianne, appearances
do not dazzle the oldest sister: even though Willoughby at first seems like a
considerate and kind gentleman, she immediately detects and becomes suspicious
of his impulsivity and lack of prudence. In these chapters, as well as
throughout the book, one can ascertain Austen's opinions of her characters by examining
those of Elinor Dashwood.<br />
As Elinor comes to appreciate Colonel Brandon as a man of good sense,
Willoughby is increasingly characterized by excessive sensibility. Brandon,
like herself, is well-read and wise, whereas Willoughby is overly romantic and
headstrong like Marianne. Ironically, both of these men are attracted to
Marianne, though Willoughby has much more in common with her. Marianne's own
preference for Willoughby, and its disastrous consequences, reveal the danger
of excessive sensibility and the importance of looking beyond appearances when
judging human character.<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Chapters 11-15</b></div>
Elinor and Colonel Brandon's discussion of "second attachments" is
ironic in light of the eventual developments of the novel, for nearly every
character except Elinor will ultimately fall in love more than once: Marianne
has fallen for John Willoughby but will grow to love the more sensible and
constant Colonel; the Colonel loves Marianne because, as we will soon learn,
she reminds him of a woman he loved before; Edward Ferrars will marry Elinor
only after a long engagement to Lucy Steele; John Willoughby professes his
devotion to Marianne but then marries the wealthy Miss Sophia Grey; and even
Mr. Henry Dashwood had two wives. In her discussion with the Colonel, Elinor
seems to have no problem with second attachments, yet it is only she who
marries the very first man she knows and loves.<br />
When Marianne uses the term "attachment," she is referring to the
deeply individualized, subjective feeling of falling in love, a term closely
linked to the novel's notion of "sensibility." The counterpart of
this term is "connection," which refers to a <i>public</i> bond that
also entails an emotional "attachment," and is closely linked to the
notion of "sense." Marianne's relationship with Willoughby is
described as an "attachment," whereas, when Elinor speaks of her
relationship to Edward, she points out the lack of any formal
"connection" between them.<br />
As in all of Austen's novels, marriage here is closely bound up with
financial considerations. When reflecting on her sister's relationship with
Willoughby, Elinor realizes that "marriage might not be immediately in
[the pair's] power." This preoccupation with money in relation to marriage
was highly warranted in Austen's day; marriage was for life, and insurance and
social security did not exist; a couple needed a guaranteed source of income
before they could settle down together. Jane Austen understood this problem
personally. Her older sister Cassandra's engagement stretched on for several
years because the marriage was postponed for lack of money.<br />
Although Willoughby ultimately marries for money, he seems oblivious to all
practical concerns in the early days of his relationship with Marianne. He
offers her the gift of a horse even though, as Elinor reminds her sister, there
is no way the Dashwoods can afford its upkeep. The horse is named Queen Mab, a
reference to the fanciful "fairies' midwife" from <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>
(Act I Scene 4), who supposedly rides her chariot across lovers' brains to
create their magical dreams. These dreams, however, according to Shakespeare's
Mercutio, are "begot of nothing but fantasy" and are "more
inconstant than the wind," just as Marianne's dream of owning the horse
can never come true and her Willoughby will prove a mercurial and inconstant
lover. Given Willoughby's unfaithfulness, it is ironic that he insists that
Mrs. Dashwood promise never to alter a single stone in Barton Cottage; a man
who abandons one lover for another has hardly the right to demand that a
building remain unchanged.<br />
These chapters serve as a lens through which to study one of the most
important themes in the novel, the role of appearances in the assessment and
judgment of character. Elinor consistently and fiercely refrains from judging
other characters on the basis of appearances alone. Although Mrs. Jennings
claims early on that Colonel Brandon is interested in Marianne, Elinor is not
convinced of this fact until Brandon approaches her directly to discuss
Marianne's romantic proclivities. Similarly, although Mrs. Dashwood and
Margaret conclude that Marianne and Willoughby are engaged, Elinor remains
skeptical so long as the two refrain from formally announcing their engagement.
Her discussion with her mother about Marianne's relationship to Willoughby in
Chapter 15 reveals that while Mrs. Dashwood readily bases her faith on looks
and gestures, Elinor requires that feelings be explicitly articulated. Mrs.
Dashwood draws conclusions based on appearances alone, while Elinor suspends
judgment until these appearances are confirmed by words. This is yet another
example of the dichotomy in the novel's title.<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Chapters 16-19</b></div>
At the beginning of the chapter, Marianne behaves as she believes a
disappointed lover ought to act. She cultivates her own grief by reading only
what she and Willoughby read together and by singing only their songs at the
piano. She makes sure that she does not sleep at all on the first night after
his departure and draws her mother and sister into her own gloom. Marianne makes
herself and those around her as miserable as possible, unlike Elinor, who
conceals her grief from her family; when she believes Edward no longer cares
for her, she sits alone at her drawing table in silent thought.<br />
One of the governing themes of these chapters is the value of privacy, but
also the confusions that result from secrecy and concealment. Since Marianne
conceals any sort of understanding that may exist between herself and
Willoughby about their status as a couple, Mrs. Dashwood and Elinor can only
speculate about their status based on her misery and her remark to Mrs.
Jennings about his expected return in a few weeks. Likewise, Elinor does not
greet Edward with the warm and open regard of a lover but instead awaits his
reactio; but as he is not forthcoming with his own emotions, this tactic leaves
her to wonder if his feelings have changed. Marianne finds Edward's reserve
puzzling as well.<br />
In a further instance of willful concealment, Edward clearly dissembles when
he claims that the lock of hair in his ring once belonged to his sister, an
echo of Margaret's eager whisper to Elinor that she saw Willoughby remove a
lock of Marianne's hair. This preoccupation with secrets is evident also in the
behavior of the Palmers: Mrs. Jennings leans towards Elinor and speaks in a low
voice to inform her that Mrs. Palmer is pregnant, and Mr. Palmer hides his face
behind a newspaper for the duration of their visit. Everyone in these chapters
seems bent on concealing their own situation from the eyes of others; the
ensuing misunderstandings and ambiguities fuel the plot the novel.<br />
The earlier Shakespearean reference to Queen Mab receives a second mention
when the Dashwood sisters see a man approaching on horseback during their walk,
and Marianne is convinced that it must be her beloved Willoughby. "Queen
Mab" was the name of the horse that Willoughby was to give her, yet the
horse was never more than a dream, for the Dashwoods could not afford such a
gift. In this chapter, Marianne's identification of the horse's rider proves to
be yet another vain fantasy like Queen Mab's dreams, for it is not Willoughby
but Edward Ferrars who rides up to greet them.<br />
When Edward first rides up to the Dashwood sisters, he comments on the dirty
lanes he had to traverse to reach Barton Cottage. Roads are essential to the
action of the novel because they facilitate the connections among characters.
Austen structures the novel according to journeys, including the Dashwoods'
journey from Norland to Barton, Willoughby's and Edward's journeys to Barton,
and Elinor and Marianne's journey to London with Mrs. Jennings. Although Mrs.
Dashwood sells their carriage when they leave Norland, the Dashwood sisters are
still able to maintain a lively social life because of the journeys that
Brandon, Willoughby, Edward, the Palmers, and the Steeles undertake to visit
Barton. This prevalence of journeys is significant: in Austen's day, improved
roads linked parishes and towns to one another and to the nexus of all
connections, London. Austen was thus highly aware of the changes roads could
bring to people's lives. In a novel built around attachments and connections,
dirty lanes are a feature of the landscape as well as a plot device.<br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Chapters 20-22</b><br />
In contrast to the Dashwood sisters, the Steeles lack education, refinement,
and integrity. Anne Steele is nearly thirty, plain-looking, and rather
simple-minded, whereas the Dashwood girls are in their late teens, beautiful,
and insightful. Twenty-three-year-old Lucy Steele, although shrewd, smart, and
pretty, lacks any real elegance and grace and never received the benefits of a
good education. In their shameless obsequiousness toward Lady Middleton, the
Steele sisters provide a definite contrast with the polite yet always honest
Dashwood girls.<br />
When Elinor comments on Lucy's lack of education, she is not referring to
formal education in "public" schools such as Eton or universities
such as Oxford; these were reserved solely for genteel men. In Austen's day,
few people perceived the need for higher education for women. Austen herself
studied briefly under the private tutelage of a Mrs. Cawley, the sister of one
of her uncles, and spent a short period of time at a boarding school in
Reading; this was her only education outside of her family. Within her family,
however, she studied drawing, painting, and piano. Women of the genteel classes
were expected to acquire these skills, or "accomplishments." In this
novel, Elinor is accomplished in drawing while Marianne is an accomplished
pianist. But the Steeles have no such skills to recommend them. Since the main
purpose of these accomplishments was to help a woman acquire a husband, Elinor
had even further reason to be surprised when the unaccomplished Lucy Steele
announced her secret engagement to Edward Ferrars.<br />
Austen ends Part I of the novel with Elinor's disappointment and
astonishment upon learning of Lucy's secret engagement to Edward. Although this
chapter (22) links directly to the next (23), Austen interrupts the plot at
this point to focus on her central character. Lucy's revelation is a critical
turning point in Elinor's thinking even if not in the development of the story
because the eldest Miss Dashwood's slim hopes of eventually marrying Edward are
now completely dashed. Only in the next chapter will she begin to digest this
news with her characteristic sense and rationality: she reasons that Edward's
engagement to Lucy must have been the product of a youthful infatuation rather
than a lasting, genuine affection.<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-MY;">Chapters 23-27</span></b></div>
Even when Lucy Steele is revealing her greatest secret to Elinor, she must
do so in hushed tones and with an atmosphere of concealment. As the rest of the
dinner party plays cards, Lucy whispers to Elinor the story of her long and
secret engagement to Edward. Although Lucy describes the history of their
relationship accurately, her claims about Edward's steadfast faithfulness and
their mutual affection are as fabricated as the basket in her hands; Edward, as
Elinor assures herself, has eyes for her alone.<br />
Marianne's name suits her well: like the Mariana of Shakespeare's <a href="http://www.sparknotes.com/shakespeare/measure/"><i>Measure for Measure</i>
</a>, who waits by the moated grange for her lover, Austen's heroine pines away
for Willoughby and awaits his visit from the moment she first arrives in town
with Mrs. Jennings and Elinor. Marianne's name is also a mirror image of
Annamaria, Lady Middleton's spoiled young daughter, who will be
"miserable" if her filigree basket is not completed before she goes
to bed. By this close kinship of names, Austen suggests that Marianne's
excessive sensibility and romanticism resembles the eagerness and impatience of
a spoiled little girl.<br />
Willoughby does not appear in any of these chapters, yet he figures
prominently in the thoughts of those characters who do. Mrs. Jennings implies
that Marianne would welcome the opportunity to travel to town with her in the
hope of seeing Willoughby, and Marianne is enthusiastic about the prospect for
this very reason. When they arrive in town, she is increasingly wretched with
each passing day that he does not visit. Elinor, too, thinks of Willoughby at
length because she is concerned about her sister's welfare. Even Colonel
Brandon calls on Elinor in order to discuss Marianne's relationship with
Willoughby and to inform Elinor that everyone in town is discussing their
engagement. These frequent references to Willoughby heighten our anxiety
concerning the true nature of his commitment to Marianne, and enable us as
readers to experience some of Marianne's longing for that which is never
present.<br />
Though Willoughby does not appear, Marianne mistakes Colonel Brandon for him
when the latter comes to visit the Dashwood sisters in London. This is one of
many suggestions in the novel that people may be substituted for one another:
Marianne had earlier mistaken Edward Ferrars on horseback for John Willoughby;
Elinor mistakes Lucy's hair for her own in Edward's ring; and Elinor initially
mistakes Robert for Edward as the object of Lucy's affections. These scenes in
which some characters fail to recognize others provide subtext for a novel in
which one young woman (Marianne) thinks she is in love with one man but ends up
loving someone else, and another young woman (Lucy) becomes engaged to one
brother but then decides to marry the other.<br />
<h3>
Chapters 28-32</h3>
Although Austen makes reference throughout the novel to letters sent from
one character to another, Chapter 29 is exceptional because it includes the
full text of four letters sent between Willoughby and Marianne. Chapter 29 perhaps
most closely resembles Austen's original 1795 manuscript for the book, which
was conceived as an epistolary novel entitled <i>Elinor and Marianne.</i> It
wasn't until at least four years later that Austen rewrote these letters with
narration.<br />
Elinor feels that Willoughby's letter proclaims him to be "deep in
hardened villainy." Indeed, Willoughby is only one in a long line of
Austen's male villains, including George Wickham (of <a href="http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/pride/"><i>Pride and Prejudice</i> </a>),
Henry Crawford (of <a href="http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/mansfieldpark/"><i>Mansfield
Park</i> </a>, and Frank Churchill (of<a href="http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/emma/"> <i>Emma</i> </a>). All of Austen's
villains are tricksters, who initially seem charming, attractive, and witty.
Some, like Frank Churchill, turn out to be fibbers and play-actors while
others, like George Wickham, are downright frauds. However, Willoughby is both:
he is a glamorous seducer as well as a corrupt philanderer. He is not just
impetuous but also callous; he is not just insensitive but also vicious. As a
result, it is not difficult to see how he can capture Marianne's heart without
ever fully winning Elinor's confidence.<br />
The contrast between Elinor and Marianne is perhaps made most explicit in
their reactions to their lovers' seemingly insensitive treatment. Whereas
Elinor is relieved that she does not have to share Lucy's news about Edward
with her mother and sister, Marianne insists through her grief that "I
care not who knows that I am wretched." Her attempt to claim intimacy with
Willoughby at the party dramatizes the dangers of showing one's feelings
publicly and contrasts strikingly with Elinor's more cautious restraint.<br />
Colonel Brandon's own personal story of his relationship with Eliza Williams
and her daughter elaborately echoes Marianne's relationship with Willoughby.
The details of Brandon's story parallel all of the plots of the novel,
including that of the insensitive parent's commitment to primogeniture, of
brothers who cannot see eye-to-eye, and of women whose hearts are broken by the
men they love. However, Brandon's dramatic story also includes divorce,
seduction, illegitimate birth, and even a duel, all of which are extreme
consequences of the emotions and situations that Marianne Dashwood must
confront. Though Brandon comments that he is a "very awkward
narrator," his story-within-a-story actually sheds light on many of the
most important themes of the novel.<br />
<h3>
Chapters 33-36</h3>
Austen's biting wit is quite evident here: as the omniscient narrator, she
makes direct comments about her characters, and, within the story, she has some
of her characters commment on other, less favorable figures. The first, more
direct display of her wit is exemplified by her comments about the dinner
party, hosted by Mr. and Mrs. John Dashwood:<br />
<div style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
John Dashwood had not much to say for himself
that was worth hearing, and his wife still less. But there was no peculiar
disgrace in this, for it was very much the case with the chief of their
visitors, who almost all laboured under one or other of these disqualifications
for being agreeable: want of sense, either natural or improved; want of
elegance, want of spirits, or want of temper.</div>
She passes judgment on her characters by pretending to cast their most negative
attributes in a positive light: John Dashwood has nothing to say for himself,
but there is "no particular disgrace" in this because his company is
just as insipid as he. Usually, these acerbic observations are presented
through Elinor's eyes, but here Austen, at her cruelest, satirizes her
characters directly.<br />
The more indirect display of Austen's wit is exemplified by the personality
and behavior of Mr. Palmer. Just after the lengthy and elaborate debate between
doting mothers about the relative heights of their children, Austen informs her
readers that Mr. Palmer, the father of a newborn son, did not find his child to
be different from any other newborn infant, "nor could he [Mr. Palmer]
even be brought to acknowledge the simple proposition of its being the finest
child in the world." Rather than informing her readers directly that Fanny
Dashwood and Lady Middleton are irrational in their motherly affections, she
accomplishes this through the character of Mr. Palmer, whose objectivity and
indifference enable her to indirectly mock the mothers' excessive
sentimentality.<br />
From Fanny's dinner party to Mrs. Dennison's musical party, these chapters
underscore the extent to which a seemingly endless series of invitations
governs the lives of the women in Austen's novel. The Dashwood women travel to
Barton at the invitation of Sir John; Elinor and Marianne travel to London at
the invitation of Mrs. Jennings; Marianne visits Willoughby's estate at
Allenham at his invitation. Indeed, formal invitations to others' homes
structure the social lives of all of Austen's heroines, and thus, although they
travel frequently and widely, the wills of others circumscribe their mobility.
In contrast, the men of the novel have agency in addition to mobility. They can
come and go as they wish regardless of the invitations and expectations of
others: Willoughby proclaims unexpectedly that he must go to Devonshire on
business; Colonel Brandon suddenly interrupts the outing to Whitwell because he
has urgent business in London; Edward comes and goes in no particular pattern.
While the plot of the entire novel is structured around the physical movement
of characters, only the male characters fully control their travels.<br />
<h3>
Chapters 37-41</h3>
When Miss Steele accidentally lets slip the secret of her sister's
engagement to Edward Ferrars, their relationship becomes no longer an
"attachment" but a "connection." An attachment is an
emotional association between two people; to form an attachment is to fall in
love. In contrast, a connection is the public bond involving a range of
associations between individuals and their families. When Lucy and Edward were
attached to one another, they were simply secretly in love with one another;
once Miss Steele makes their engagement public, their families become heavily
involved in an ever-widening circle of legal and economic implications. For
example, Mrs. Ferrars announces that she will disinherit her son if he marries
Lucy instead of the wealthy heiress Miss Morton, and Colonel Brandon offers
Edward a living to support his wife. Thus, when the attachment becomes a
connection, the number of individuals involved in the relationship increases
considerably.<br />
Connections link family members to one another in concern for their mutual
welfare. These bonds are so strong that it is unusual to find people behaving
warmly and generously toward those they are not related to. Thus, John Dashwood
cannot understand why Colonel Brandon offers Edward a living
("Really!" he says upon hearing the news; "Well this is very
astonishing!--no relationship--no connection between them!") Brandon, we
know, is acting solely on the basis of voluntary fellow-feeling. He empathizes
with Edward because he, too, has known the pain of love accompanied by
tremendous emotional distress. Furthermore, he respects Edward because he knows
that Edward has Elinor's admiration. Therefore, he offers Edward a means of
supporting a wife in spite of his disinheritance. But for John Dashwood, only
family ties could provide the grounds for such a kind and generous gesture.<br />
<h3>
Chapters 42-45</h3>
Marianne's illness is a product both of excessive romantic sensibility and
of a sequence of physically plausible reactions. On the one hand, her illness
begins as a "nervous illness" induced by Willoughby's rejection and
her disappointed romantic hopes and dreams. On the other hand, she catches a
cold after wandering about the wet grounds of Cleveland. Austen's detailed
description of Marianne's physical deterioration prevents readers from
dismissing her ailment as a mere case of Victorian female hysteria: she charts
the course of Marianne's illness, from a day spent shivering by the fire, to a
restless and feverish night, to her feeling that she is "materially
better" about a week later. Then, a few hours afterward her fever returns,
accompanied by delirium. Although the scene in which Marianne cries out for her
mother seems Gothic in its melodrama, delirious outcries were a common symptom
of fever in Austen's day according to the most commonly consulted medical
handbooks. Thus, Marianne's illness is an affliction of both the soul and the
physical body.<br />
While Marianne lies sick in bed, Elinor must deal not only with her sister's
illness but also with the individual who was in part responsible for her
condition, John Willoughby. While they were in London, Elinor concluded that
Willoughby was "deep in hardened villainy." However, in these
chapters, she comes to pity and sympathize with him. Softened by his honesty
and passion, Elinor comes to understand, along with the reader, what had seemed
a purely cruel change of heart in London. Although Willoughby's behavior is
still inexcusable, his confession at least supplies the motivation for his
actions. Perhaps Elinor finds it easier to forgive him because she knows that
ultimately he has suffered--and will continue to suffer--for his misconduct: he
has entered into a loveless marriage with a woman who will never be able to
make him happy. Elinor may also have an easier time forgiving Willoughby
because she now knows that his love for Marianne was genuine, in spite of his
inappropriate behavior. Thus, even the rational and restrained Elinor is moved
to forgive Willoughby after hearing his passionate confession.<br />
By reintroducing Willoughby at the end of her novel, Austen grants him more
depth than an ordinary villain enjoys. Since he is able to speak for himself,
Willoughby emerges as a more complicated and nuanced character than George
Wickham, who simply carries off Lydia Bennett in <a href="http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/pride/"><i>Pride and Prejudice</i> </a>and
never redeems himself again. Moreover, the reintroduction of Willoughby
provides a long-awaited explanation of his mercurial behavior and a
confirmation of Marianne's conviction that he loved her very much. Thus, Austen
ties up her loose ends before entering her novel's finale.<br />
<h3>
Chapters 46-50</h3>
When the servant Thomas first announces the news of "Mr.
Ferrars's" marriage to Lucy Steele, Marianne bursts out in hysterics while
Elinor maintains her composure in spite of her deep disappointment. Their
reactions are ironic on two levels. First, Elinor was the sister with a close
attachment to Edward, and thus, she has far more cause to break down in tears.
Second, not only do the sisters' reactions seem reversed from what they should
be, but the reactions of the men under discussion are reversed as well (though
we do not yet know it): it is actually Robert, not Edward, who is engaged to
Lucy Steele.<br />
Several critics have objected to the implausibility of the match between
Marianne and Colonel Brandon. Brandon is characterized as a clear-headed,
dependable, practical man--the total opposite of the romantic and impetuous
Marianne. Thus, Marianne's final acceptance of him seems completely out of
character, since the marriage requires her to abandon her romantic ideals
entirely. Moreover, Marianne and Colonel Brandon barely interact in the novel,
especially in the concluding chapters. Thus, it seems unlikely that Marianne would
come to love Brandon as she had loved Willoughby; she hardly knows him.
Nonetheless, by closing the novel with their marriage, Austen shows the extent
of Marianne's transformation: she writes, "She was born to discover the
falsehood of her own opinions, and to counteract by her conduct her most
favourite maxims." If Marianne's ability to love Brandon is unconvincing,
it is because of Austen's great faith in the ability of the individual to
remake herself in light of shifting circumstances.<br />
The novel closes with a reminder that the most important attachment in the
novel is not that between any man and woman, but between the two sisters. The
sisters decide to live side-by-side together with their husbands at Delaford,
thereby affirming the mutual respect and affection, which has kept them close
throughout the entire novel.<br />
Ultimately, both sisters end up married to the novel's only second sons.
Edward Ferrars, although strictly speaking the firstborn, is disinherited by
his mother; as John Dashwood remarks, "Robert will now to all intents and
purposes be considered as the eldest son." We know that Colonel Brandon is
a second son because he has an older brother who married his old sweetheart,
Eliza, many years before the novel's plot begins. Whereas these characters are
the heroes of the novel, all the eldest sons, including John Dashwood, Robert
Ferrars, and Colonel Brandon's older brother, are cast in a negative light. In
Austen's day, the eldest sons were the ones who inherited all the family
property according to the laws of male primogeniture. However, in spite of
these inheritance laws, it is the second sons who ultimately find contentment
in the novel; thus, they make happy lives for themselves despite societal and
financial constraints.<br />
<br />
adapted from Spark notes <br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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mhemahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17353140103300997311noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3460817932747672680.post-61987499706526395072012-07-23T06:56:00.004-07:002012-07-23T06:56:42.957-07:00Colonialism and Imperialism - A Passage to India<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-size: 13.5pt;">It's a useful comment,
from Martin Green, that "One could read all the works of the Great
Tradition, and never know that England had an empire" - the canonical
English texts deal, he comments, with "women and marriage, personal
relations, and alternatives to politics", but the financial source of the wealth
which lubricates these personal and social relationships is left generally
unspoken of. Forster's work faces that silence head on, raising issues of
empire and race in ways which had not been attempted earlier. His principal,
and contrasting antecedent as, of course, Kipling, and it is against Kipling's
representation of the 'East' as a training ground for manliness, decency and
character-building which Forster wishes to challenge. When the novel appeared,
in 1924, many Anglo-Indians were outraged: the portrayal, Forster admitted, was
exaggerated, but only slightly. Ronnie's views on his career are parallel to
the sympathies of contemporary young Anglo-Indians for whom the 'East' was, in
the words of Disraeli, "a career". India was also seen, from this Kiplingesque
perspective, as a training ground, a frontier, a gymnasium within which
qualities such as manliness and character were to be assessed. We find echoes
of the influence of such views of India in George Orwell's portrayal of his
experiences in the 'East', in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Burmese
Days</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>or 'Shooting an
Elephant'.</span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-size: 13.5pt;">Forster clearly
ironises such views of the India as Career, as gymnasium or testing ground, but
it is the nature of the debunking which is important. Forster, in common with a
number of upper middle class intellectuals (such as Virginia Woolf) was an
anti-Imperialist, but his criticism of imperialism is liberal, as opposed to
Socialist or Marxist. For Forster, with his liberal emphasis on education and
individualist psychology, approaches the critique of Anglo-Indian imperialism
in terms of the predominance amongst the upper middle classes of the
"Public School Attitude": the priggishness, snobbery, complacency,
censoriousness, the lack of imagination and subtlety, the philistinism and
narrow-mindedness which the novel sees in the Anglo-Indians is, for Forster,
testimony of something deficient within the English national character.</span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-size: 13.5pt;">This emphasis on
national psychology is a recurrent issue throughout Forster's work, coupled
with his ironic, and often highly satirical, portraits of the English middle
class culture from which he had emerged and, briefly, lived within. In a 1921
article, 'Notes on the English Character' Forster outlines his case more fully:<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>"For it is not that that the
Englishmen can't feel - it is that he is afraid to feel. He has been taught at
his public school that feeling is bad form. He must not express great joy or
sorrow, or even to open his mouth too wide when he talks - his pipe might fall
out if he did. He must bottle up his emotions, or let them out only on a very
special occasion."</i></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-size: 13.5pt;">Forster, as someone
who partly admires the virility of this type of Englishman, remains ambivalent
about the English Public School Character and the "undeveloped heart"
of the typical Englishman. Nevertheless, in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b>A
Passage</b>, his criticism of Anglo-Indian prejudice, snobbery and
narrow-mindedness is remorseless.</span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-size: 13.5pt;">Whilst Forster
emphasises the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>personal</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>experience of Imperialism two points
should be noted: (i) he recognises that Imperialism in India is a system
(political, economic and social) and that India is a colonial subject, and (ii)
that Forster's account of India is culturally and historically specific.
Although the novel was first conceived in 1912, it is set in an India shortly
after the Amritsah Massacre, a notable and brutal episode in the history of
English rule over India, when there were debates about how Anglo-Indian rule
could be liberalised through new attitudes of courtesy and decency. Forster
spent two years in India, in 1912 and again in 1921/2, and did so as a paid
secretary at a Hindu court. He was closely involved in Indian affairs,
supported the Ghandi Non-Co-operation movement of the early 1920s, and
continued to remain interested in Indian affairs as a broadcaster and
commentator in the inter-War period. For these reasons Forster's portrait of
Anglo-Indian rule is a well-observed portrait, from the pen of someone who was
thoroughly familiar with the realities of the Raj.</span><br />
</div>mhemahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17353140103300997311noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3460817932747672680.post-51134202974790287802012-07-23T06:56:00.000-07:002012-07-23T06:56:02.471-07:00A Polyphonic Novel - A Passage to India<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-size: 13.5pt;">This takes us back to
the issue of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b>A Passage</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>as a "polyphonic" novel, as
a novel with multiple points of view or perspectives, and also as a novel split
across a number of levels - political/social observation,
spiritual/philosophical speculation, and straightforward drama. One's reading
of the novel is, therefore, determined by the point of view from which the
action is seen. If, for example, we identify Fielding with Forster, as many
readers do (and partly correctly), the novel is about friendship and the
difficulty of leading a life by liberal principles Fielding, in terms of this
reading, is the hero. From Aziz's point of view, however, the novel takes on a
different quality: Aziz moves from the naïve good-natured innocent who is eager
to please to a more rigidly Indian nationalist perspective. However, the novel also
presents us with two more points of view, that of Adela Quested and Mrs Moore.
In the case of Adela the novel allegorises her growth in personal honesty and
personal truth - she moves from a shallow desire to "see India"
towards a more truthful sense of self, of sexual and psychological honesty,
than she had previously possessed. But it is the point of view of Mrs Moore,
who also confronts something in the Marabar Caves, an emptiness and hollowness
which undermines her form of Christian idealism, which makes the novel
particularly enigmatic. What is in the caves, if anything, challenges all Mrs
Moore's idealistic belief in the intrinsic friendliness of Nature and of the
Universe - she realises, possibly, that Nature is, at best, indifferent, and
possibly hostile. From this perspective many critics have seen Forster using
Mrs Moore's point of view as a means of exploring fundamental issues about Good
and Evil, about Truth and Reality. Certainly the novel permits this reading, a
reading of the "shadow side" of Christian humanism and of the basic
tenets of Western civilisation, and a prophetic anticipation of the spirit
which would lead to Auschwitz and the Holocaust.</span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-size: 13.5pt;">Yet over-arching all
of these perspectives is the design of the novel itself, with its tripartite
structure modelling the 3 Indian seasons. It is also a novel structured by the
quest for India itself. The novel portrays a ever-shifting and panoramic view
of an 'India' which cannot grasped. References to mystery/muddle that is India
are frequent throughout the novel, but by the end all we can say for sure is
that we have various visions, but India remains.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><br />
</div>mhemahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17353140103300997311noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3460817932747672680.post-26166183278198519612012-07-23T06:55:00.002-07:002012-07-23T06:55:28.179-07:00Personal Realities - A Passage to India<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-size: 13.5pt;">Why the interest in
India? For Forster the interest was highly personal. Forster was a homosexual
and it was his love affair with an Indian, Syed Ross Massood, a long and
turbulent affair, which opened his eyes to India. The novel is dedicated to
Massood and is, partly at least, an attempt to come to terms with that relationship
through its exploration of Anglo-Indian friendship. Massood died in 1923, when
Forster was working on the novel, and inevitably his thoughts and feelings
regarding the relationship worked themselves into the novel's characterisation,
its imagery, and its treatment of personal relationships. It certainly explains
a great deal about the characterisation of Aziz and the narrative's attempt to
see events from Aziz's point of view. In part also Forster's treatment of
inter-racial friendship draws upon his other affairs, most notably with
Mohammed, whom Forster had first met in Alexandria in 1917. Throughout his
novels Forster explores ways in which the barriers - of race, of class, of age
and gender - can be broken down or even transcended. In<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Howards End</b>, for example, the
novel's insistence on the need to<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>connect</i>("only
connect") permeates the exploration of the various friendships, and
Forster's other Edwardian narratives continue this in their presentation of
Anglo-Italian relationships, or in the friendships which cross the barriers of
class. As a liberal novelist Forster is determined to explore these friendships
from all perspectives, from a variety of points of view.</span><br />
</div>mhemahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17353140103300997311noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3460817932747672680.post-44354762087913502862012-07-23T06:54:00.003-07:002012-07-23T06:54:35.214-07:00General Meaning of A Passage to India<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">The
question that the Indians discuss in Chapter 2 — "Is it possible for the
Indians to be friends with the English?" — is the focal point of the plot
of A Passage to India. Can East meet West on a plane where each not only
tolerates but also appreciates the other? In a larger sense Forster asks if
universal understanding is possible. (It should be pointed out that this novel
does not really suggest an affirmative answer to that question.) He then
proceeds to introduce characters from the major factions in India and to show
their interactions.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext" style="background: white; line-height: 17.6pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">As he
traces the interplay, he keeps before the reader symbols that show forces above
and beyond the reach of most men's grasp. The sky and a hint of arches beyond
it are prominent examples. To show that not only are there heights which only
the most perceptive minds can comprehend, but also depths, he shows especially
sensitive people finding beauty — and God — in the lowest of creatures, the
jackal and the wasp. Within this framework he treats of three of the great
religions, Islam, Christianity, and Hinduism.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext" style="background: white; line-height: 17.6pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">Islam
is shown in a decadent state reveling in past glory. The Westernized Moslem
finds it hard to maintain his belief. His festivals are empty ceremonies in
which the participants bicker about inconsequential matters. Aziz, whom Forster
chooses to represent Islam, professes to skepticism about the precepts of his
religion; his poetry is devoted to flamboyant exploits of the past. All he
appears to have left is a sadness because of the decline of Islam, and a
contempt for the Hindus.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext" style="background: white; line-height: 17.6pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">The
phrase that Mrs. Moore uses to describe Christianity, "little talkative
Christianity," seems to be Forster's view of that religion. He chooses to
use many biblical allusions, often in an ironic manner, which point up what
Christianity professes, but does not practice. The religion of the English in
India takes second place to affairs of state and does not enter into the
practical aspect of their lives; it is merely a conviction.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext" style="background: white; line-height: 17.6pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">The
events of the story lead the reader step by step to a consideration of
Hinduism. Professor Godbole, its main exponent, is pictured as a man of peace,
a man of wisdom, who refuses to become enmeshed in the petty quarrels of men.
The short climactic section at the end of the novel shows Hinduism in action.
The religious zeal of the participants in the festival causes them at least to
suspend momentarily, if not to disregard entirely, any self-seeking for
position as leader, even though the rajah is near death. The adoration of the
god is so intense that when the sick and aged rajah is brought to the ceremony,
he is scarcely noticed.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext" style="background: white; line-height: 17.6pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">The
ceremony includes ecstasy, merriment, and solemnity, suggesting that religion
should embody the whole of life. The biblical passage "God is love"
has an error in spelling, but none in practice. The Hindus' faces are mild and
serene, because "religion is a living force to the Hindus," and among
its tenets, one of the most important is the "peace that passeth
understanding." But Hinduism too has its imperfections; Forster points out
that in Mau, though there is no strife between Moslem and Hindu, there is
between Brahmin and non-Brahmin.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext" style="background: white; line-height: 17.6pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">The
key phrases in regard to the characters are "the understanding
heart." Aziz, warmhearted and impulsive, possesses understanding, but his
volatility reduces its effectiveness; Adela is cold, honest, and reserved. Mrs.
Moore has both kindness and an innate understanding of people at the beginning
of the novel, but the kindness at least does not withstand her experience in
the caves, and understanding without kindness is of no use to her.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext" style="background: white; line-height: 17.6pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">Fielding
is the key figure who develops with the novel. He not only crosses racial and
national lines, but he responds as though they did not exist. He professes
atheism, but by the end of the novel he has at least become personally aware of
spiritual influences: puzzled by the pleasing change in his wife after the
encounter with Hinduism, he is intrigued by whatever it is that the Hindus seem
"to have found."</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext" style="background: white; line-height: 17.6pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">Professor
Godbole is not so much a character as a "carrier" for an ideology
that suggests at least a theoretical answer to the question Forster poses at
the beginning of the book, "Can the Indian be friends with the
English?"</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext" style="background: white; line-height: 17.6pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">There
is a historical aspect to this novel as well as a religious one. Forster's
premise seems to be that no nation can subjugate another without inflicting
wounds that leave deep scars. No nation can be of service so long as the ruling
nation holds itself superior and aloof. The book is not a strictly historical
account, of course, because Forster is more concerned with social relationships
than he is with history. But he does indicate the spirit of rebellion that is
beginning to build in India and shows the English losing their grip on the
government. The last few paragraphs of the novel seem almost prophetic of
Indian independence, which did not take place until 22 years after the book's
publication.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
</div>mhemahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17353140103300997311noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3460817932747672680.post-34930514396446403532012-07-23T06:53:00.005-07:002012-07-23T06:53:46.136-07:00Important Quotations Explained<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<br />
<div style="background: white; line-height: 15.05pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="small-caps"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; font-variant: small-caps; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; padding: 0cm;">1</span></b></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">. In every remark [Aziz] found a meaning, but not always the true
meaning, and his life though vivid was largely a dream.</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 15.05pt; margin-bottom: 9.2pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 9.2pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">This
quotation occurs in Chapter VII during Aziz and Fielding’s first meeting at
Fielding’s house, just before the tea party. Fielding has just made a brief
comment in which he meant that the post-impressionist school of painting, to
which Aziz has just made joking reference, is obscure and silly. Aziz, however,
takes Fielding’s comment to mean that it is silly for Aziz to have Western
cultural knowledge. Aziz’s embarrassment and discontent does not last long in
this instance, but the incident foreshadows the misunderstandings that
eventually break down the men’s friendship.</span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 15.05pt; margin-bottom: 9.2pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 9.2pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Aziz’s
capacity for imagination and intuition leads him to genuine and deep
friendships with Mrs. Moore and Fielding. However, Forster also shows that
Aziz’s intuition, which lacks grounding in fact, can lead him astray. In the
aftermath of his trial, Aziz’s false hunch that Fielding is courting Adela
Quested leads to the breakdown of the men’s relationship. In the above
quotation, an early case of this false intuition, we see that Forster lays the
blame for the breakdown on Aziz. Forster does not fault the difficulties of
cross-cultural interaction, but rather Aziz’s overactive imagination.</span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 15.05pt; margin-bottom: 9.2pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 9.2pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">This
flaw in Aziz’s character, in a sense, also stands for a flaw of India itself.
Forster presents Aziz’s attitudes toward others as unfounded in reality. Cut
off from a logical cause, Aziz’s responses damage relationships rather than
build them. This cut-off quality is later mirrored in the very landscape of
India: the land around the Marabar Caves, described in Chapter XIV, appears
“cut off at its root” and “infected with illusion.” Forster presents India and
Aziz as somewhat threatening to the logical and reasonable apprehension and
reaction to reality that the author sees as epitomized by Western order.</span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 15.05pt; margin-bottom: 9.2pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 9.2pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">This
type of narrative comment that diagnoses Aziz’s character is characteristic of
Forster’s writing. The author is concerned with presenting actions and
dialogue, but he also seeks to draw comparisons and distinctions, to categorize
and characterize. Indeed, Forster tells and comments as much as he shows.
Still, not all of Forster’s narrative diagnoses can be taken as absolute truth
that stands throughout the novel. Though Forster depicts Aziz’s imaginativeness
as a handicap here, in other scenes we see that Forster values it.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="small-caps"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; font-variant: small-caps; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; padding: 0cm;">2</span></b></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">. Fielding did not even want to [correct Aziz];
he had dulled his craving for verbal truth and cared chiefly for truth of mood.
As for Miss Quested, she accepted everything Aziz said as true verbally. In her
ignorance, she regarded him as “India,” and never surmised that his outlook was
limited and his method inaccurate, and that no one is India.</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 15.05pt; margin-bottom: 9.2pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 9.2pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">This
passage, occurring at Fielding’s tea party later in Chapter VII, highlights a
major distinction between the English and the Indians. Forster shows that
Indians value the emotion and purpose behind a statement more than the literal
words being stated. Indeed, we see that Aziz often tells lies—or, at least,
lies by English standards—that are nonetheless truthful to Aziz himself because
they reflect his desire to be hospitable, or because they serve to keep a
conversation progressing smoothly. Similarly, other Indians, such as the Nawab
Bahadur, give elaborate speeches that seem to have no coherent point, but that
serve to rescue the other party from disgrace or impoliteness. Whereas the
Indians seem to favor indirect speech, the English value statements primarily
on the basis of literal truth. The English are incapable of intuiting the
larger purpose or underlying tone behind a speech. Fielding’s ability, as seen
in this quotation, to respect statements for their mood as well as their truth,
shows that he has learned cross-cultural lessons and can interact with Indians
on their own standards, rather than his own.</span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 15.05pt; margin-bottom: 9.2pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 9.2pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">This
passage also highlights a problem with Adela’s approach to India. Adela is
still caught up with English literalism, even though she is well meaning and
her intelligent individualism sets her apart from the rest of the English.
Without a capacity for sympathy or affectionate understanding, Adela cannot
realize that she is evaluating Indians on her own terms, rather than their
terms. Adela’s relationship with Aziz is, in this sense, without understanding
or compassion. Rather, it is somewhat materialistic—Adela wants to know the
“real India,” and she expects Aziz to render it for her. This goal in itself is
Adela’s second mistake: whereas she seeks a single India, the real India exists
in hundreds of guises, and no single Indian can offer an entire sense of it.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="small-caps"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; font-variant: small-caps; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; padding: 0cm;">3</span></b></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">. [Mrs. Moore] felt increasingly (vision or
nightmare?) that, though people are important, the relations between them are
not, and that in particular too much fuss has been made over marriage.</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 15.05pt; margin-bottom: 9.2pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 9.2pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">This
quotation, appearing in Chapter XIV during the train ride to the Marabar Caves,
foreshadows Mrs. Moore’s upcoming crisis with the cave echo. Ever since setting
foot in India—or, more specifically, since hearing Godbole’s religious song in
Chapter VII—Mrs. Moore has felt a spiritual presence larger than her own
Christian God. The largeness of this presence frightens Mrs. Moore and
convinces her that human interactions are petty and meaningless. Her crisis at
Marabar reinforces this feeling and leads her to paralyzing apathy. Mrs.
Moore’s vision, which shows that something larger than man encompasses the
entire world and renders it equal, is a sort of negative version of Godbole’s
Hindu vision. The Hindu vision of the oneness of all living things finds
comfort and joy in surrendering individual existence to the collective. Though
Mrs. Moore takes this vision of impersonality to mean that human relationships
are meaningless, the vision can also be liberating. Indeed, it is through a
similar vision of impersonality that Adela is able to realize that Aziz is
innocent and that she must proclaim him so, regardless of the cost to her own
person and reputation.</span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 15.05pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">This passage also evinces Forster’s subtle
critique of the institution of marriage. Mrs. Moore and Fielding, both
potential mouthpieces for Forster himself, express distaste for marriage,
specifically because it does not lead to a fruitful relationship that
enlightens one about oneself or others. Few marriages exist in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; padding: 0cm;">A Passage to India</span></i>;
indeed, we witness the breakdown of two—Ronny and Adela’s before it even
starts, and the McBrydes’ through adultery. As such, Forster implies that the
English sentimentalize the domestic structure of husband, wife, and children.
They view this structure as a sacred symbol of all that is good about the
British Empire, though the author contends that, in reality, domestic
situations can lead to trouble and ignorance.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="small-caps"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; font-variant: small-caps; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; padding: 0cm;">4</span></b></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">. “Your emotions never seem in proportion to
their objects, Aziz.”</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"><br />
<span style="background: white;">“Is emotion a sack of potatoes, so much the
pound, to be measured out? Am I a machine?”</span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 15.05pt; margin-bottom: 9.2pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 9.2pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">This
exchange occurs in Chapter XXVII, as Aziz and Fielding’s relationship begins to
break down in the face of Fielding’s new respect and advocacy for Adela. Though
Aziz and Fielding have several misunderstandings during this time, their main
conflict centers on the issue of reparation money from Adela. Aziz seeks
damages from Adela in the aftermath of the trial, but Fielding believes that
Adela should be given some credit for her bravery, rather than ruined
financially. Fielding points out that Aziz loves Mrs. Moore, who has done
nothing for Aziz, but begrudges Adela even after she has risked her own
reputation and marriage to eventually pronounce Aziz innocent. Aziz and
Fielding’s disagreement over this issue demonstrates the larger disparity
between their worldviews. Fielding, who values logic and reason, sees Aziz as
fickle and irrational because he bases his feelings on intuitions and
connections that Fielding cannot see or understand. Aziz, conversely, sees
Fielding as succumbing to the materialism and literalism of the rest of the
English. The two men often have lively conversations, but this quotation shows
one new trend in their discussions: they directly disagree with each other and
say so. Notably, Fielding is often the one who initially expresses
dissatisfaction with Aziz’s behavior or opinions. Fielding becomes more
judgmental and less patient in the aftermath of the trial.</span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 15.05pt; margin-bottom: 9.2pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 9.2pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">This
quotation also highlights the larger issue of British rule over India.
Britain’s control of India began initially as a capitalist venture with the
British East India Company. As such, Britain appears to see itself as taking
the muddle and inefficiency of India and turning it into an orderly,
profitable, capitalist system. Aziz objects to this kind of materialism,
believing it values profit and efficiency over intangible matters of spirit and
love.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="small-caps"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; font-variant: small-caps; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; padding: 0cm;">5</span></b></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">. Were there worlds beyond which they could never
touch, or did all that is possible enter their consciousness? They could not
tell. . . . Perhaps life is a mystery, not a muddle. . . . Perhaps the hundred
Indias which fuss and squabble so tiresomely are one, and the universe they
mirror is one. They had not the apparatus for judging.</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 15.05pt; margin-bottom: 9.2pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 9.2pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">In
this quotation from Chapter XXIX, which details Fielding’s and Adela’s
reactions to Adela’s strange experience at Marabar, Forster shows the
inadequacy of English rationalism to evaluate mystical India. Adela is unable
to articulate her frightening experience in the caves, even after her vision at
the trial shows her Aziz’s innocence. She and Fielding both approach the
problem logically, attempting to outline a number of possible explanations:
hallucination, the absence of the guide, and so on. Though Adela and Fielding
are committed to rationally explaining the occurrence, each of their
explanations falls short of Adela’s experience. Here, we begin to see that
Adela’s experience in the cave stands as a sort of synecdoche—a metaphor that
takes a part for the whole—for the entire experience of the foreignness of
India. Like Marabar, India presents a confused set of stimulants, not all of
which can be incorporated into a dominant explanation or interpretation. The
only possible way to understand and classify the chaos of Marabar and India is
to ascribe these mysteries to a force larger than humanity—a mystical force.
Once mysticism is acknowledged, the “muddle” of Marabar becomes a “mystery,”
and the strangeness of India comes to appear as a coherent whole.</span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 15.05pt; margin-bottom: 9.2pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 9.2pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">This
passage also shows Fielding and Aziz coming closer to each other through mutual
respect and similar experience. Though Fielding does not like Adela for much of
the novel, disagreeing with her theoretical and unemotional approach to Indians
and India, the two do share a level of rationalism and non-spiritualism. Both
are -atheists in a way and cannot truly fathom mystical presence as Mrs. Moore
can. Fielding begins to respect Adela for her frank objectivity and her
willingness to admit that she is unable to explain what happened in the caves.
Through conversations like this one, Adela and Fielding grow closer by
acknowledging the strangeness of the India around them. Aziz senses that this
is the tenor of Adela and Fielding’s friendship, and he begins to resent
Fielding for it.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US"> sparknotes.com </span></b></div>
</div>mhemahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17353140103300997311noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3460817932747672680.post-24165721325766700992012-07-23T06:53:00.000-07:002012-07-23T06:53:06.375-07:00The British Raj in India<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">India
was accustomed to invaders by the time the English arrived in the seventeenth
century. Beginning with the great Indo-Aryan invasion (2400-1500 B.C.), the
natives of the Indian subcontinent had seen parts of their land overrun by
conquering armies of Huns, Arabs, Persians, Tartars, and Greeks. Buddhists,
Hindus, and Moslems had ruled over parts of the vast country. None had
succeeded in ruling all of India — none until Great Britain came onto the
scene.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext" style="background: white; line-height: 17.6pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">The
English arrived at an opportune time, during the disintegration of the Mogul
Empire, which had controlled most of India from 1526 until the death of
Aurangzeb in 1707. As the empire dissolved, wars for power between Marathas,
Persians, and Sikhs began. The English took advantage of these conflicts.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext" style="background: white; line-height: 17.6pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">The
English did not come as invaders or conquerors; they came as traders. When the
British East India Company was formed in 1600, its agents were in competition
with the French and Portuguese traders who had preceded them. Whereas the other
European traders kept aloof from Indian affairs, the English became involved in
them. Trade was their most important consideration, but fortifications and
garrisons were necessary to insure security. Warring princes were very interested
in obtaining European arms and military skills for their own purposes and
willingly paid for them with cash, credit, or grants of land.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext" style="background: white; line-height: 17.6pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">In
this way power was gradually gained by the British East India Company until in
1757 Robert Clive gained control of India in the Battle of Plassey. In 1774
Warren Hastings became the first governor-general of India; during his regime
the foundations of the civil service system were laid and a system of law
courts was organized. The power was still in the hands of the East India
Company; the company agents extended their control and obtained the right to
collect taxes.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext" style="background: white; line-height: 17.6pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">The
Sepoy Rebellion in 1857 was an attempt by the Mogul emperor to regain power,
and it showed a desire on the part of Indians to win back control of their own
country. The rebellion, which lacked organization, support, and leadership,
left widespread bitterness. In 1858 the British government took over rule of
India, with power in the hands of the British Parliament. Great Britain
indirectly controlled various territories, known as "Indian States,"
where the rulers were rewarded for support during the rebellion: titles were
conferred, autonomy was granted, and protection against possible revolts was
assured.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext" style="background: white; line-height: 17.6pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">In
1885 the Indian National Congress was formed. Little more than a debating
society, it did represent every geographical area and all religious groups and
castes. In 1906 the Moslem League was formed to advance the cause of
Mohammedanism in India.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext" style="background: white; line-height: 17.6pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">From
1858 to 1914 England firmly established its rule over the country. English
governors at the head of each province were responsible to the governor-general
(or viceroy) who was appointed by the King of England and responsible to
Parliament. In 1877 Queen Victoria was declared Empress of India.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext" style="background: white; line-height: 17.6pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">In
return for helping Great Britain in World War 1, Indians were promised a share
in their own government. This was far from independence, for repressive
measures were directed against India. More Indians, however, were elected to
the legislature and Indians, for the first time, sat on the Viceroy's Council.
There was a constant struggle for independence. The Amritsar Massacre in 1919
indicated the extent of unrest and trouble among the Indians.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext" style="background: white; line-height: 17.6pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">India
was guaranteed independence before it agreed to help the Allies in World War
II. In 1946 Clement Atlee, Prime Minister of Great Britain, offered complete
independence as soon as Indian leaders could agree on a form of government that
could manage a free India. By 1947 it was clear that only partition could
resolve the conflict among the Indian peoples. India and Pakistan became
dominions in the British Commonwealth of Nations. In 1949, the new constitution
declared the Union of India to be a sovereign democratic republic.</span></div>
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</div>mhemahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17353140103300997311noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3460817932747672680.post-35371906886335310942012-07-23T06:52:00.003-07:002012-07-23T06:52:39.617-07:00Mysticism in A Passage to India<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<div class="litnotetext" style="background: white; line-height: 17.6pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">Much
has been written about mysticism in Forster's novels, primarily in A Passage to
India. It is not, however, mysticism per se with which Forster is here
concerned, but rather the mysticism of Hinduism. Any understanding of the
mystic element in this novel requires some knowledge of the religion on the
part of the reader. (See the short paragraph at the beginning of the commentary
on Part III, the "Temple" section.)</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext" style="background: white; line-height: 17.6pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">But
even such knowledge will not bring complete or immediate understanding, for
Forster is not attempting to explain Hinduism, or to proselytize for it; his
method of dealing with it is, in the main, allusive rather than expository.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext" style="background: white; line-height: 17.6pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">The
novel is full of unanswered questions: "Mrs. Moore felt increasingly
(vision or nightmare?) that, though people are important, the relations between
them are not." "God si love. Is this the first message of
India?" The reader can find many others for himself; since Forster himself
does not pretend to answer them, it would be presumptuous to do so here. In
fact, part of the essence of mysticism is its inexpressibility; it cannot be
reduced to words, to questions with answers.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext" style="background: white; line-height: 17.6pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">However,
the reader should at least be aware of those elements that have mystical
overtones — primarily the character of Mrs. Moore, the echo and its effect on
her, and many of the aspects of Hinduism.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
</div>mhemahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17353140103300997311noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3460817932747672680.post-54408712802859386262012-07-23T06:51:00.004-07:002012-07-23T06:51:59.337-07:00Structure of A Passage to India<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<br />
<div class="litnotetext" style="background: white; line-height: 17.6pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;">
<i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">A Passage to India<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">falls naturally into three parts. The first is dominated by the
educated Moslem gentlemen, with Aziz as the most prominent. It reveals the
division of Chandrapore into two factions, the English and the Indians. It
shows how each feels toward the other with a kind of uneasiness apparent in the
differences between them. It is the period before the hot weather and on the
surface, benign.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext" style="background: white; line-height: 17.6pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">The
Caves section plunges the groups into the hot weather. The cave incident that
involves Aziz and Adela in a trial reveals the hatred that has lain below the
surface in both groups. Evil and ugliness prevail and violence erupts briefly
and then subsides, subservient to the oppressive heat.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext" style="background: white; line-height: 17.6pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">Warily,
in this section, Forster begins to sound the temple bells, and the voice of
Hinduism becomes more and more prevalent.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext" style="background: white; line-height: 17.6pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">The
trial scatters the main participants in many directions. Mrs. Moore dies en
route to England; Adela returns to England after her broken engagement;
Fielding is promoted to a new position that involves travel; and Aziz and
Godbole retire to the Hindu state of Mau, which is the setting for the final
section of the novel.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext" style="background: white; line-height: 17.6pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">The
Temple section regroups three of the main characters, and, as the title
suggests, brings Hinduism into the spotlight. Fielding, traveling less
"light" than usual, is reunited with Aziz, but Fielding's marriage
makes complete reconciliation impossible. The rainy season predominates and
seems to give new life and to renew the life cycle.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext" style="background: white; line-height: 17.6pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">Although
some critics seem to believe that Forster ends the novel on a pessimistic note,
the prevalence of Hinduism and its beneficent effect on Fielding somewhat
denies the charge.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext" style="background: white; line-height: 17.6pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">E. K.
Brown discusses the rhythm in the book, saying that there is a rise-fall-rise pattern
indicated in the events of the three parts of the book: in the first part,
good; in the second, evil; and in the third, good again.</span></div>
<div class="litnotetext" style="background: white; line-height: 17.6pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">Godbole's
song runs as a haunting melody through the part of the book that follows the
tea party, popping up unexpectedly to produce strange effects. It finally comes
to full fruition at the celebration of the birth of the god Krishna. (</span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Krishnashtami</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">,)</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</div>mhemahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17353140103300997311noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3460817932747672680.post-43945041383323911012012-04-25T00:39:00.001-07:002012-04-25T00:39:42.059-07:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: medium;">
</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: medium;">Maigun Gaardbo Olsen, Utilitarianism and <i>Hard Times</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: medium;">
Exam paper from the Department of English, Aalborg University.<br />
<br />
1 Introduction<br />
</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">
In this paper I have chosen to write about one of the major
philosophical theories, namely the theory of utilitarianism, and from
this the discussion will inevitably move in the area of some theories
that go against it, its opponents. In the course of the research one
major background source will be used and that being Charles Dickens’
novel ’Hard Times’. This because Dickens in this work has both described
and criticized utilitarianism in a most extraordinary and convincing
way. <br />
One can surely say that ’Hard Times’ is a great novel in itself, but
when one thinks about the criticism that lies behind the work, the
criticism of a whole system of thinking, a whole ideology, the novel
becomes more than just a good novel, it becomes a masterpiece. This is
what I would like to focus on in this paper – how Dickens manages to
transform the system of the time, utilitarianism, into a rather
ridiculous system, and gets away with it most splendidly.<br />
The paper will be presented in the following way: First a section on
utilitarianism, a presentation of the theory so to say. This is
considered important because utilitarianism was the main philosophical
ideology in Victorian time. It sort of became a political economy of
that time, shown in the face of materialism. So an introduction of what
that ideology consists of is a very important factor in order to reach
an understanding of Charles Dickens’ reasons for criticizing the system
so intensively. <br />
The next section will still be dealing with utilitarianism, but here
the characters in ’Hard Times’ are the main focus of attention. It is
considered important to sketch out how the different characters present
different ways and degrees of this ideology that is so important in this
novel. And how these characters change in the course of the novel is
also a very exciting factor to explore. Therefore, a presentation of the
main characters will be given and what they each stand for, and also
very important - how their views upon the world change in the course of
the events that they are faced with. <br />
Then a discussion of Dickens in ‘Hard Times’ follows, where the aim
is to find out how much of the ideology derived from the novel is his
own personal belief. This is considered important, because in this
novel, more than any other, one can see his clear opinion on the
subject. He is very much "present" in the text. So a discussion of
Dickens’ disbelief in the utilitarian ideology and his political or
ideological beliefs shall be presented in this section.<br />
To sum up the paper, a conclusion will then be presented. In this
section there will be a sum up from all the previous sections in order
to find out whether or not the paper has completed the work it set out
to do.<br />
</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: medium;">
<br />
2. Utilitarianism<br />
</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">
In this section an overview of what utilitarianism actually is will
be presented, and which theories go against it. There will be a short
presentation of the main utilitarian values. <br />
First of all it should be mentioned that utilitarianism is a moral or
ethical theory which says that the ethically right action is the one
that in comparison to other possibilities brings out the largest amount
of positive values. Utilitarianism belongs to the philosophical category
of consequentialism. The basis of the theory is that in order for a
property to be valuable <i>"it must be a universal feature, capable of being realized here or there, with this individual or that"</i>.
So the most important feature of this theory is that anyone in the
world would chose one action over the other on the basis of the same
moral judgment; this judgment works as a set of rules for everyone to
follow. <br />
Another term for consequentialism is teleology, which is an older
term. Moral theories are usually divided into two different sides –
teleology and deontology. To sum it up quickly, teleological ethics say
that one should always judge an action from its consequences, whereas
deontological ethics say that one should not judge actions from their
consequences, but instead from what is the right thing to do in each
separate situation. So the teleological view is the "good", the greatest
good for the largest amount of people, while the deontological view is
the "right", to do the right thing.<br />
A teleological ethic must be connected with a theory of what is good
in itself, a philosophy of value; deontological ethic, however, must
also consist of a teaching of duty. <br />
To sum it up quickly, utilitarianism leaves nothing up to the
imagination. Everything is to be explained by the help of logic and
facts. Individualism and egoism are important factors in this system.
Attention is put on the individual and his/her goals to receive most
pleasure out of life. Of course, individual pleasure and most positive
values out of each given situation doesn’t sound that bad to begin with.
But this ideology has too many holes in it to include everyone. This
sort of individualism becomes more like the survival of the fittest, and
that leaves a lot of "unfit" people out of its consideration. <br />
The utilitarian philosophers, who are mentioned most often, are
Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. These two, however, represent two
totally different aspects of this ideology. Bentham is the one who
stands for the ideology described in the paragraph above. Utility,
well-being and pleasure are the main sources for action in every human,
in his opinion. This philosophy was very dominant at the time ‘Hard
Times’ was written.<br />
Mill was also very influenced by utilitarianism, but at the same time
he had a very critical relationship to this theory. Instead he turned
more to the classical liberalism and has been considered one of the
pioneers of social-liberalism, which turns its back on the laissez-faire
politics. His central points or values are personal freedom,
self-respect, integrity, and social well-being. It could be claimed that
his philosophy was a little bit closer to what Dickens believed in, but
this shall be elaborated on later in the paper.<br />
Having presented these two philosophers views on utilitarianism, it
may have opened the path for a better understanding of the view that
Dickens had on this ideology. Mill was a bit of a rebel in that field,
but still he was a follower of that same ideology - he had lived under
it his whole life; his father, John Mill, was very devoted to this
system, as was Bentham.<br />
Having presented the aspects of utilitarianism, the next step will be
to spot this philosophy among the characters in ‘Hard Times’. It is not
difficult for the reader to find out that Dickens satirizes this
theory, but the interesting thing is how he does it through the
characters. This will be discussed in the following section.<br />
</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: medium;">
3. Utilitarianism in ’Hard Times’<br />
</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">
<i>"Now, what I want is, Facts. Teach these boys and girls nothing
but Facts. Facts alone are wanted in life. Plant nothing else, and root
out nothing else."</i> These are harsh words, spoken to a classroom full
of young children. These are also the first sentences in the novel, so
the reader is put into the utilitarian way of thinking as soon as he/she
opens the book. <br />
When reading the novel, the reader quickly gets acquainted with this
ideology that was so dominating during the period it was written. But it
is through the characters themselves that the reader receives most of
the impressions, or experiences most emotions, and not least, forms
his/her own ideas and opinions about the subject. Of course the
characters are the most important ingredients in any novel, but in this
one the characters seem to represent a whole lot more than just being
characters in a story for the people to read. Perhaps it is because
Dickens himself felt so strongly about the subject that his own ideology
shines through so clearly in this novel especially, so he, himself,
steps into the story and influences the characters directly (this will
be further discussed in section 4 and in the conclusion).<br />
</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: medium;"><br />
3.1 Utilitarian aspects among the characters <br />
</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">
In this discussion I have chosen to include only those characters that are of most importance to the context of this paper.<br />
Mr. Thomas Gradgrind and Mr. Josiah Bounderby are the most
outstanding representatives of utilitarianism in the novel and very good
followers of this system they are indeed. Facts alone are the
principles to live ones life by in their opinions, facts alone will lead
you forward in society. And these facts of life must be taught to the
children from their birth, so to speak. One very good example of this is
Louisa, Mr. Gradgrind’s favorite daughter. She is the character who
seems to be the living proof of the success of this factual system (or
at least, so Mr. Gradgrind thought). <br />
The one scene which stands out most clearly to the reader as a
representation of this system’s firm ideology is the scene when Mr.
Gradgrind introduces his daughter to the marriage proposal from Mr.
Bounderby. This scene exposes this ideology right to the skin as far as
compassion and love goes. For example, the following part of their
dialogue appears very harsh (Louisa has just asked her father if Mr.
Bounderby asks her to love him, and Mr. Gradgrind says that that
expression is perhaps a little misplaced):<br />
</span><br />
<dir><dir>
<span style="font-family: Arial;">
</span><i><span style="font-size: x-small;">"What would you advise me to use in its stead, father? <br />
…"I would advise you (since you ask me) to consider this question, as
you have been accustomed to consider every other question, simply as
one of tangible Fact."<br />
</span></i></dir>
</dir><span style="font-family: Arial;">
And then he gives her a long impersonal speech consisting of a number
of facts about different marriage statistics, and Louisa tries again:<br />
</span><dir><dir>
<span style="font-family: Arial;">
</span><i><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: x-small;">"What do you recommend, father,…that I should substitute for the term I used just now? For the misplaced expression?" <br />
"Louisa…it appears to me that nothing can be plainer. Confining
yourself rigidly to Fact, the question of Fact you state to yourself is:
Does Mr. Bounderby ask me to marry him? Yes, he does. The sole
remaining question then is: Shall I marry him? I think nothing can be
plainer than that."<br />
</span></i></dir>
</dir><span style="font-family: Arial;">
Thus, love is not the major issue in a marriage. Only the facts are
important in every situation. The decision of sharing one’s life with
someone for the rest of ones life should be no different than any other
decision to be taken in the course of one’s life. The facts of the
matter are what is of importance, and the facts were that she had
received a marriage proposal from Mr. Bounderby. So, was she to accept
it or decline it? As a perfect example of the system she was brought up
by, she accepts the marriage proposal, even though she was not the least
in love with her future husband.<br />
Louisa is a character in the novel who is touched by both "worlds" -
the world of facts and the world of fancy. But surely the world of facts
is the most dominant to her. She does break "free" from it, but
obviously not entirely. One reason for claiming this is the fact that
she was a grown woman before she was able to stand up to it - therefore
it may have been too late for her to leave everything ever taught to her
completely behind. Another reason is at the end of the novel, where one
is led to believe that she was left to a destiny of not knowing about
the future. She could still only see facts that were presented to her
very eyes, but could not see things for herself in the future. Things
were just to be. She could see things happening to other people around
her, but for herself she could not imagine anything good happening.<br />
Tom Gradgrind, the son, is a completely different example of this
ideology. Under the roof of his parents, he, of course, has no other
choice than to oblige his parents’ wishes or commands, so he is thereby
brought up by the same principles as his sister. But as the story goes
on we find out that his character is more ridiculous than serious. He is
constantly being referred to as the "whelp", his actions are dubious
when it comes to consequences or fairness. Of course, it could be
claimed that he is a perfect copy or example of utilitarianism, because
every action he commits he commits out of self-interest. So the
consequences of his actions are determined by what he himself can get
out of it. <br />
Therefore, one can say, in a strictly consequentialist manner, that
by letting everyone think that Steven Blackpool robbed the bank, less
people were likely to get hurt than if he said that he had done it
himself. Then he would have hurt his sister, his whole family, and not
least Mr. Bounderby. Whereas by letting people think that Blackpool did
it, less people were going to get hurt – first, he was already unpopular
among his people; second, he didn’t really have any family; and of
course, third, he was poor. So it could be claimed that young Tom does
live up to the utilitarian standards as much as anyone, perhaps even
more than any of the other characters (with Mr. Bounderby as a possible
exception).<br />
Mr. Gradgrind is a very interesting character to study. In the
beginning he presents the very image of utilitarianism and most
convincingly too. In the way that he brings up his children, in his way
of taking over Sissy Jupe’s ’education’, through the marriage
proposal-talk with Louisa, etc. These examples all show a man dedicated
to the world of facts. But something happens to his devotion to that
world. When Louisa comes to him, crying and in a miserable state,
something changes in this ’hard’ man, something softens up his heart,
and he becomes a different and more compassionate man, and, more
important, a little more caring father. <br />
When Louisa confronts him with her open-hearted call for help and
critique of his role as a father, and overall critique of everything she
had ever known to be the truth, her words to him astonish him:<br />
</span><dir><dir>
<span style="font-family: Arial;">
</span><i><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: x-small;">"If I had been stone blind; if I
had groped my way by my sense of touch, and had been free, while I knew
the shapes and surfaces of things, to exercise my fancy somewhat, in
regard to them; I should have been a million times wiser, happier, more
loving, more contented, more innocent and human in all good respects,
than I am with the eyes I have."<br />
…."I never knew you were unhappy, my child." <br />
</span></i></dir>
</dir><span style="font-family: Arial;">
"I never knew you were unhappy", was his reply to his daughter. And
he really didn’t know it, or at least he did not want to know it. The
last sentence in that chapter of the novel is: <i>"And he laid her down
there, and saw the pride of his heart and the triumph of his system,
lying, an insensible heap, at his feet."</i> Everything that he had ever
believed to be true and right, lied there at his feet now, shattered.
His life’s work had crumbled together in a matter of minutes. And after
this scene it seems as if he wants to make it up to her, her lost
childhood, his fatherly love and protection, as he takes her in his
house, protects her honor from Mr. Bounderby. So only a few words of
reason, of love, were enough to break down a whole system of ideas. <br />
In the beginning of the novel, Mr. Gradgrind was a very strong-minded
and dominating character, but after this episode it seems as if he
falls into the background, becomes more neutral in some sense. And he
takes the whole utilitarian ideology down with him. After this the world
around all of the characters becomes different, as if in some way the
ideology was firmly held together by him alone. And when he starts to
lose his confidence in the system the system falls apart. Of course, on
the other hand, it can also be claimed that after this incident things
sort of take off and he takes action in cases that he wouldn’t have done
before – he keeps Mr. Bounderby from his daughter and he helps his son
escape. <br />
Mr. Bounderby is also a character of importance when it comes to
utilitarian beliefs. He is probably the only one that keeps a firm
belief in the system all through the novel, although he, as much as the
other characters, does go through some individual problems and changes.
But he is the one that ends up in the exact same situation as he started
out with, as a bachelor. So he is at the same point at the end of the
story as he was in the beginning. And one cannot really claim that he
has undergone as much personal development as the other characters.
While Mr. Gradgrind seems to be the one who holds the ideology together,
Mr. Bounderby seems to represent the very essence of the ideology. He
ends up all alone, even without his biggest fan, Mrs. Sparsit.<br />
But as it turns out even Mr. Bounderby is a character living on an
illusion; that is what makes this novel so interesting too. He
represents the very essence of this harsh ideology that has no place for
imagination. And still he lives in the illusion that he is the living
proof of the self-made man. That he has found his way out of the misery
and poor circumstances that his grandmother left him under. But as it
turns out, none of the stories that he so proudly talked about seemed to
be true. So one can claim that he has quite an imagination for a
utilitarian mind. He has defended the whole system of inequality by
demonstrating himself as the perfect example that anyone can do it; the
poor have no excuse for not bettering their own situation. If he could
do it, they could too, if they put their minds to it. He was living on a
lie.<br />
Sissy Jupe is also a character worth mentioning in this context.
Sissy is one of the few who never completely becomes a victim to this
cold, factual world. Although she spends a large amount of her life in
the Gradgrind home, she never loses the qualities taught to her from her
own "people", from her own social background. This innocent young girl,
who was mocked by the teacher and presented as the "dumb" girl in the
beginning of the story slowly turns out to be the most central character
in the whole novel. And more important, she becomes the person with the
"surviving" or "winning" ideology, if one can call it an ideology.
Perhaps just the word "values" would say just as much as ideology. <br />
Sissy functions as a sort of mediator between the two worlds - the
world of facts (or utilitarian liberalism) and the world of "plain"
liberalism, where feelings are the main concern, or serve as the basis
of ones actions (this will be elaborated on in the discussion about
Dickens’ view on utilitarianism). So suddenly Sissy has been given a
huge responsibility in the novel, even though there is quite a large
section of the novel where she is not mentioned at all. Sissy is sort of
"gone" from the story from the time that Louisa accepts the marriage
proposal and until she brakes down at her father’s home. But still she
serves as one of the most important characters in the novel, as the
reminder and messenger of the good and plain.<br />
Last, Steven Blackpool also needs a presentation in this discussion.
He represents the complete opposite pole to this ideology of facts.
Sissy, of course, is also an outsider from this system, but still she
has been acquainted with it for many years and is living under its roof.
She has no choice but to accept the circumstances that put her into the
Gradgrind home. She still has all the pure qualities in her, but there
has been put a sort of a lid on them, she can’t express her true
feelings under those circumstances, not openly at least. Although she
does influence people anyway, quietly and unknowingly at first. After
all the "troubles" in the family she steps out more openly and
full-hearted.<br />
Steven is driven only by pure and unspoiled feelings and he is as
genuine as a person can ever be. And of course he belongs to the
underclass, the hard working people, the undermined people that Dickens
had turned it into a "mission" to save; to create an awareness of the
existence of this people and the pure qualities that they possessed.
Steven, thus, represents the unspoiled, pure human being. Not spoiled by
any political or ideological opinions or persuasions; merely a man with
the feelings a man is born with, such as love, compassion, loyalty and
pride, as well as humbleness. <br />
The relationship between Sissy and Steven can perhaps be explained in
the same manner as the one between Mr. Gradgrind and Mr. Bounderby.
Steven represents the true and pure values that are so much searched for
in this novel, the pure human values, and Sissy serves as the one that
holds it all together. Mr. Gradgrind, with the help from Louisa, had the
power to hold the utilitarian ideology together or make it fall apart,
and Sissy has the power to influence and present people to her qualities
or to let everything be. So they are presented with the power to make
everything all right, to make things better.<br />
The characters in the novel, therefore, play a large role in showing
the wrongs of the system. But where is Dickens himself in all of this?
This is an interesting discussion, which will be presented in the
following section.<br />
<br />
</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: medium;">4 Dickens in ‘Hard Times’<br />
</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">
In this novel, in particular, it is very difficult to separate the
writer from the text. All through the novel one can almost feel Dickens’
presence through the characters. <br />
Dickens was very much against the system of individualism and egoism.
And not least, he was against the lack of imagination that this
ideology stood for. Imagination is a natural part of the growth of each
individual and without it the personality is left ‘naked’; one becomes
merely a product of the society one lives in, without any personal
distinctiveness. <br />
In his work on Dickens in ‘Appreciations and Criticisms’, Gilbert
Keith Chesterton argues that Dickens was a firm believer in liberalism.
Not the utilitarian liberalism that was practiced by Bentham and his
followers, but the liberalism that had begun in the American and French
Revolutions. In the section about ‘Hard Times’ he argues that the
English only inherited some aspects of the Revolution: <i>"The English
people as a body went blind, as the saying is, for interpreting
democracy entirely in terms of liberty. They said that if they had more
and more liberty it did not matter whether they had any equality or any
fraternity."</i> He goes as far as saying that there was one man who kept his head straight, and this man was Dickens. Dickens was the man who <i>"was
there to remind the people that England had rubbed out two words of the
revolutionary motto, had left only Liberty and destroyed Equality and
Fraternity".</i> ‘Hard Times’ is a very good example of this mission,
where he does all he can to remind people of the qualities of equality
and fraternity.<br />
So Dickens sets off to serve as the mediator between the harsh world
of facts and the world of equality and fraternity, exactly in the same
way that he lets the characters in the novel do it. Sissy, therefore,
sort of serves as the disguised writer in the novel. Dickens’ mission
becomes Sissy’s mission: to serve as a reminder of the important
qualities in a world of seemingly hopeless chaos. She was the one who
took care of Louisa and Rachel, the one who found Steven, the one who
helped young Tom and his father; she was the final link to a world of
equality and fraternity.<br />
Dickens wanted the focus on facts and statistics in the education of
children to be removed, and a focus on developing the children’s
imagination to be practiced instead. Reading of literature, fairy tales,
and the development of aesthetic values overall were considered
important factors to him. Of course, in a system that has no room for
people’s imagination to explore the world with, where does that leave
Dickens? Everything he lives for turns into nothing. Thus, he turns into
a rebel, a man set out to convince his fellow Englishmen that the world
of fairy tales is not nonsense. <br />
Most of all, in my opinion, Dickens sets out to set his countrymen
straight on the issue of equality and fraternity, on real liberalism.
Throughout many of his works focus is put on the poor and the working
people of London. Especially in ‘Hard Times’ he spotlights the lack of
equality and fraternity in England at that time. <br />
Then one can ask oneself - which philosophical ideology did Dickens
believe to be true? This may be difficult to determine. Maybe he just
plainly believed in democracy. Besides Bentham and Mill, there were a
number of other outstanding European philosophers in that period. One of
them was a German named Emanual Kant, a great philosopher of morals and
ethics. He clearly breaks free from the utilitarian points of view. He
does, like the utilitarians, put most emphasis on the individual, but in
a totally different manner. Kant believed that the individual’s
self-worth is essential; everyone is on equal terms and the juridical
and political institutions are to secure freedom and equality for all. <br />
The utilitarian discussion about whether or not one should sacrifice a
few in order for the majority to prosper is out of the question for
Kant. It is always unfair to violate an individual’s rights. Therefore,
laws and morals are not to be determined from their best consequences
for the majority of people. Instead, the individual’s rights, which are
necessary for people to live in moral freedom, are important, and those
are for example: the abolishment of slavery and other kinds of
inequality, abolishment of war, and a constitutional government.<br />
The reason why Kant has been included here is that in my opinion
Dickens’ views are somewhat alike Kant’s. Dickens was, of course, also
influenced by the thinkers in his own country, but still there is a lot
of Kant’s ideology present in his criticism of the system. Dickens
floats somewhere between John S. Mill’s and Kant’s ideology, if one is
to put him in any box of categorization at all. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
</span><span style="font-family: Arial;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: medium;">5 Conclusion</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial;">
Working with this subject of utilitarianism and ‘Hard Times’ has led
to many interesting questions, both concerning the novel itself and
concerning Charles Dickens as a person. Which roles do the characters of
the novel really play, in a broader perspective? Are the different
characters representatives of different systems of thinking? What is
Dickens’ direct mission with this novel? <br />
These are all questions that, in my opinion, have been more or less
discussed and answered throughout the paper. As mentioned in the
introduction, one interesting thing about this novel is how well Dickens
manages to make a fool out of the system, and gets away with it
perfectly well. The ideology so strongly held together by Mr. Gradgrind
and Mr. Bounderby is broken down, piece by piece. These two men are
presented as authorities in the beginning, men to look up to. Sissy
Jupe steps in as the "stupid" little girl who knows nothing of reality,
but turns out in the end to be the only one who can work out the mess
that the other characters have got themselves into. Mr. Gradgrind, the
prominent politician, turns out to need help from the little girl that
he set out to "help" in the beginning. <br />
Steven Blackpool, the poor, hardworking man, the man who nobody took
seriously, except Rachel, turns out to be the most honest and
warmhearted man in the novel, and of course he was innocent of the crime
he was accused of. He dies by the hands of those who betrayed and
questioned him; the innocence is thereby killed by the system. <br />
Louisa, who was portrayed as the perfect daughter and perfect result
of the utilitarian beliefs, turns out to curse this ideology altogether.
From the discussion in section 3.1 about the end of the story and what
it meant in regard to Louisa, she, in my opinion, represents the system
gone wrong. Dickens gets his most successful criticism of utilitarianism
through her. We hear of a longing and sad young woman, unable to
realize any of her potentials. She represents what Dickens believes to
be wrong about the system – the lack of imagination, real childhood,
compassion, understanding, etc. Sissy and Steven are there as the
opposite poles, the world that Louisa wants to join, but cannot, because
she has been "spoiled", her personality has not been given free hands
to grow. And being in between is almost as bad as being part of the
former ideology, she never becomes whole, never gets back what has been
lost.<br />
As a concluding remark it can easily be claimed that Dickens felt
strongly about the subjects discussed in ‘Hard Times’. He was a strong
believer in equality for all, and a loyal "speaker" for the poor people
in England. He most certainly gets away with making the utilitarian
ideology look pretty ridiculous through this novel, and it is presented
very convincingly too. It is up to the individual to decide whether or
not Dickens was a liberal or of some other political conviction. But
personally, I find Gilbert Keith Chesterton’s arguments pretty
convincing and very interesting. In his opinion Dickens was an unspoilt
liberal who had remained rather hopeful. </span>
</div>mhemahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17353140103300997311noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3460817932747672680.post-21900440412853160272012-03-27T07:27:00.001-07:002012-07-23T07:01:19.288-07:00A Routledge Literary Sourcebook on E. M. Forster’s A Passage to India<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
A Passage to India is Forster’s most celebrated and most frequently read novel. Published in 1924, the novel has given rise to critical discussion about imperialism, liberalism, modernism, ethnicity, sexuality and the relation of the personal and political. With Forster being one of the chief authors of early twentieth-century English literature, this text is a key text to the modern novel. Therefore, Routledge has decided to publish a sourcebook on the novel in their series of literary sourcebooks, edited by Duncan Wu (Oxford). Peter Childs, the editor of the book, is Principal Lecturer in English at the University of Gloucestershire and well known due to his publications on twentieth-century prose.<br />
<br />
The approach of this book is very different to other critical works. It has been designed to provide students with the materials required to begin serious studies of their own. This is reflected in the structure of the book. Section 1, ‘Contexts,’ provides biographical data in form of an author chronology and contemporary documents relating to the author and his work—every single one of them by Forster himself. The texts are structured in four major groups: ‘The English and the British Empire’, ‘On A Passage to India’, ‘India’ and ‘On the Rhythm in Fiction.’ Section 2, ‘Interpretations,’ contains what the most critical books contain: critical approaches to the text. In Childs’s book, they are sorted as a history of criticism. This part is divided into three main chapters. The first gives an overview over the critical reception of Forster’s novel whereas the second as well as the third are selections of extracts from the most important and influential early and modern criticism. The last part of the second section is dedicated to the stage and film adaptations, but does—alas!—not tell about all and the most recent adaptations. Section 3 is called ‘Key Passages.’ This is clearly a euphemism for a chapter summary with snippets of the original text. The reason to have these forty-eight pages in the book is simple: They are for the lazy students. They summarize the plot, they give examples for brief presentations; they tell the reader the setting, the point of view—everything which would take the student five minutes having the novel in hand. Furthermore, they tell the reader how to interpret the text. The rest of the book is a short list of recommended editions and further texts, followed by an index.<br />
<br />
One can ask for the perfect reader of this book, and one will find none. For the student who really wants to do research on Forster, the references are too few and the critical extracts to short and to various. There is a general lack of in-depth analysis. The editor, so it seems, did neither want to focus on a specific aspect of the novel nor put an emphasis on a specific type of criticism, whether feminist, postcolonial, biographical or structuralist criticism. The idea to provide a book of sources as a basis for discussion is laudable, but it is disavowed by the I-tell-you-how-to-read-this-novel part of the sourcebook. What this sourcebook can do is to give you a general overview over the history and the types of criticism, a timeline of Forster’s life and a selection of letters and essays, which can form a contextual frame for the novel. One can recommend Peter Childs’s book to teachers who either really want to discuss the novel or have no idea and want to deliver the usual interpretational phrases, and the book is recommendable to people who do not want to read the novel by themselves and have no internet account to find the freely available chapter summaries. Still, the book is well done, very clearly arranged and of a certain academic standard. As first overview for a subsequent authentic research, this well-written book is good choice. (Heiko Zimmermann)<br />
<br />
<br />
Childs, Peter, ed. A Routledge Literary Sourcebook on E. M. Forster’s A Passage to India. Routledge Literary Sourcebooks. London, New York: Routledge, 2002. (167 pages, paperback)</div>mhemahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17353140103300997311noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3460817932747672680.post-5427296073769976862012-02-22T00:20:00.001-08:002012-02-22T01:32:08.943-08:00Book Review: Hard Times<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dzNmg1wnPJK7SH0TvgGENEfolTlLV4Bl2gA3XZ3t9MNfntWnjAZuYoabrfRJ-X9Mud87Uzokr76zxEy2_sOEA' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe>mhemahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17353140103300997311noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3460817932747672680.post-78403557386850283052012-02-21T23:57:00.000-08:002012-02-22T00:10:58.405-08:00Critical notes on Hard Times<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:trackmoves/> <w:trackformatting/> <w:punctuationkerning/> 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style="line-height:normal"><b><span style="font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; color:#60502A;mso-fareast-language:EN-GB">SERIOUSNESS AND ENTERTAINMENT<br /></span></b><span style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";color:#60502A;mso-fareast-language: EN-GB">Though Dickens was a great entertainer he was not included in F R Leavis’s The Great Tradition of the English novel as he lacked seriousness something that Henry James and Joseph Conrad possessed. However Leavis felt that Hard Times has complete seriousness that could excite the adult mind. Leavis praised the novel’s <span style="background:yellow;mso-highlight:yellow">tight story, clear symbolism, moral values, sharp dialogue, natural style and convincing denouement</span>. Hard Times was seen as <span style="background: yellow;mso-highlight:yellow">a great moral fable that captured the writer’s moral vision.</span><br /><br /><b>LIFE OF FACTS<br /></b>“I want facts sir! What I want is facts, sir!” the teacher’s voice booms in chapter one. It is a classroom scene where only the voice of the teacher echoes. The one word that comes out of the lesson is ‘facts’ and next ‘reason.’ The voice of the teacher is imperial and authoritative. Dickens is ironic here. He presents the school as a model school in which Bitzer is the best student defining a horse clinically and dispassionately. There is no heart or creativity in education, just dry scientific facts.<br /><br /><b>INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION</b><br /><span style="background:yellow;mso-highlight:yellow">Dickens was born in 1812 and was a product of the Industrial Revolution</span>, a revolution that saw the rise of factories in England between 1770 and 1840. Dickens was rather poor, had no proper education and worked in a blacking factory. All this made him unhappy. He worked hard to educate himself and write novels to make a decent living. <span style="background:yellow;mso-highlight:yellow">Dickens, like Gradgrind, had no time for idle fancy</span>.<br /><br /><b>COKETOWN</b><br />The people of Coketown have no life at all, as people of Great Expectations do. We feel that characters in Hard Times have no energy at all. Dickens knew London better than Coketown but he could still bring out the listlessness of the townsfolk in Coketown. Dickens shows the dehumanizing aspects of industrialization in urban Victorian society but does not show details of the environment. English factories were destroying the bucolic landscape and the economic power that was arising from them was changing the social order making some wealthy while leaving others rather poor. The soot-coated, black and savage Coketown gives the feeling of repetitiveness, monotony and drudgery. Both its streets and inhabitants have lost their uniqueness and they look alike. <span style="background:yellow;mso-highlight:yellow">The repeated use of the word “same” and the phrase “like one another” reveals both the monotony of Coketown and the drudgery of its inhabitants.</span> Everything in the redbrick Coketown is “severely workful” and the idea of sameness extends to the <span style="background:yellow;mso-highlight:yellow">eighteen churches of different “religious persuasions</span>,” the jail, infirmary, town hall, school and cemetery. The blasting furnaces of Coketown make it hot as hell; <span style="background:yellow;mso-highlight:yellow">the gas-filled air makes people feel suffocated.</span><br /><br /><b>SOCIAL CRITICISM</b><br />Social criticism saw the novel as <span style="background:yellow;mso-highlight: yellow">a novel of “passionate revolt</span>” where there were no villains or heroes, but only <span style="background:yellow;mso-highlight:yellow">oppressors and victims</span>. And <span style="background:yellow;mso-highlight:yellow">the culprit, if there was one, was industry</span>. Socialists saw the <span style="background:yellow;mso-highlight:yellow">machine as a symbol of oppression</span> when controlled by money-making capitalists. Dickens has lost his good humor. His tone becomes quite serious. Cecilia Jupe and Louisa are serious and suffering characters. Though humble and natural, Sissy is predictably bookish. Louisa is tragic.<br /><br /><b>THEMATIC BALANCE IN THE NOVEL</b><br />The novel <span style="background:yellow;mso-highlight:yellow">ends in a thematic balance</span>. The novel <span style="background:yellow;mso-highlight: yellow">begins with the childhood of the mind and ends with the childhood of the body</span>. Dickens begins the story with reason and hard facts and ends it with fancy and imagination. He believes that both machine and social graces should make life beautiful and worth living. The loss of balance in society was undoubtedly lamentable.<br /><br /><b>VICTORIAN UTILITARIANISM</b><br />Dickens brings out the negative effects of Victorian Utilitarianism are seen in the characters of Thomas Gradgrind and Josiah Bounderby. The practical utilitarianism of Gradgrind and the egotism of Bounderby destroy the creative spirit and fellow feeling. Utilitarianism was a philosophy based on a minimalist view of man that understood human nature in terms of economic relations alone. Though riddled with self-contradictions it was responsible in some measure for reforms in administration, sanitation and education. Utilitarianism, though inspired by the theory of laissez faire came to represent a streamlined civil service and centralized governance. It was difficult to reconcile the Benthamite idea of general happiness of a political and legal kind with Adam Smith’s self-harmonizing economic principle of laissez-faire (minimum intervention from the law). Dickens seemed to be both a victim and chronicler of such a contradictory response to utilitarianism in Hard Times, both in his treatment of the theme of education and trade unionism.<br /><br /><br /><b>RESTRUCTURING EDUCATION</b><br />Dickens wanted to restructure education and do away with unqualified teachers in schools. He strongly felt the need to provide training to teachers. As such, he introduced Mr. M’Choakumchild, fresh from a training college, accompanied by his wife, about to deliver his first classroom lecture. Though the satire, both in the choice of the name and presentation of character, seems inescapable, M’Choakumchild is after all a representative of a new school ideology. His Scottish-sounding name obviously refers to the importation of trained Scottish teachers in English schools. Obviously M’Choakumchild knows too much in a somewhat conceited way. He bores and confuses his simple-minded but ignorant students. Through M’Choakumchild, Dickens expressed some of the popular criticism against training schools of the time. Dickens wanted training schools to instruct teachers in teaching methodology and develop their intellect, not just impart some erudite scholarship.<br /><br /><b>THE RESPONSIBILITY OF PARENTS</b><br />Hard Times develops the conventional theme of nineteenth century fiction that it was the responsibility of parents to get their sons into a financially rewarding profession and their daughters into a financially secure marriage. Till they got comfortably married, education for women was seen as developing skills to protect themselves against the greedy instincts of men. Gradgrind is no different from a typical Victorian father who has the welfare of his daughter at heart. Though it hurts Dickens’ sensibility, just as it does ours, Gradgrind finds no trouble with the idea of marriage as a financial transaction. He understands that her middle-class daughter needs money to set up an establishment. It is, therefore, commonsense to look for a man of means like Bounderby.<br /><br /><b>MARRIAGE AND POWER RELATIONS<br /></b>Tom Gradgrind, more than his father, sees Louisa’s marriage to Bounderby as strengthening of “power relationships” between the two families apart from providing a good financial deal to his sister. Tom employs a mercenary approach. He views matrimonial alliance as economic advantage or exploitation. And he is not wrong in doing so.<br /><br /><b>POSTCOLONIAL CRITICISM</b><br />Edward W. Said in his book Culture and Imperialism argues that the English novel in the nineteenth century continues the narrative of a stable British empire and its imperial policy. The novelist, insofar as he believes in the general idea of free trade, sees outlying colonies available for convenient use in developing themes of “immigration, fortune, or exile.” It is only later that the Empire becomes the main subject in writers such as Kipling, Haggard, Doyle and Conrad. Fictional discourse about the Empire is also accompanied by discourses in ethnography, administration, economics and historiography. Furthermore, belief in liberal individualism and free trade were hard to reconcile with the maintenance of a vast colonial empire overseas. In Hard Times Dickens is alive to the debate of unionism, utilitarian education and worker’s predicament. Apparently the novel reveals the inherent tensions, ideological conflict and the muddled intellectual position of the author.<br /><br /><b>DECONSTRUCTIVE CRITICISM</b><br />The conflict between facts and imagination is also played out along ideological lines. The opposing values of utilitarianism in schools and traditional humanism of the circus are played between utilitarians and emotivists. Gradgrind employs metaphorical language to control others. He believes in equivalencies while the circus folks see language as dialogue to empower others. A tension exists between metaphorical language of domination and broken language of dialogue.<br /><br /><b>NEW HISTORICISM</b><br />New Historicists, such as Catherine Gallagher, situate the text in the English industrial society and analyze Dickens’ attempt to suggest social cohesion through an intricate process of linking cooperative family life to competitive public life. Dickens attacks the unhealthy link between money and morality. And yet his novels reveal the unwillingness of the family to participate in larger social issues of the day. Dickens’ withdrawal into middle-class family values of self-discipline, responsibility, domesticity, self-sacrifice and dedication seemed at times to work against the idea of individual freedom. Critics have pointed out this lapse in Dickens’ writing, and, more seriously, have condemned him for his lack of enthusiasm at resolving his own ambiguous position vis-à-vis these issues.<br /><br /><b>FEMINIST LITERARY CRITICISM</b><br />The single hard fact about Hard Times is that it is a male-dominated and patriarchal novel. Obviously, this gives rise to the issue of gender and opens up related issues of,<br /><br />A. the way Victorian society was constituted,<br />B. the way people saw themselves and constructed the other, and<br />C. the way sexual politics controlled women in private and public life.<br /><br />Dickens explores feminine discourses such as female affection and sympathy much to the chagrin of his male-dominated critics such as George Henry Lewes (George Eliot’s companion). Dickens reveals a linguistic structure that attempts to control literature and more especially the entry of women in public life. Dickens also challenges the power structure of male-dominated Victorian society by presenting the world through female terms and conditions. Though speaking as a male and from the outside, Dickens speaks against the controllers of power thereby enhancing his position as a novelist. Feminist literary criticism, originating in the 1960’s out of the feminist movement demanding equal rights for woman, had gained strength and popularity in subsequent decades. It presupposed that, by and large, most cultures tend to be patriarchal if not outright misogynist. Feminist critics commonly agreed that concepts of gender tend to determine aspects of masculinity and femininity in any given culture. Therefore, unlike human sex, which is anatomical or biological, concept of gender has a social construction. They tended to agree with Simone de Beauvoir that “One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman.” </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p>mhemahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17353140103300997311noreply@blogger.com0